Psychology 101 Notes PDF

PSYCHOLOGY: pysch (mind & study) ➔ Black Box Approach ➔ there are instances that people S → BOX → Response understand how and what people ➔ i.e. give food to a hungry pigeon are thinking. food (stimulus) eat...

PSYCHOLOGY: pysch (mind & study) ➔ Black Box Approach ➔ there are instances that people S → BOX → Response understand how and what people ➔ i.e. give food to a hungry pigeon are thinking. food (stimulus) eating/not eating ➔ included behavior in its field (response) ➔ study of human behavior & mental ➔ allows us to see and observe processes ➔ stimulus: which we find in the environment BEHAVIOR: any kind of action that we engage in in which we can observe and 4. Gestalt Psychology - the whole is measure. greater than the sum of all its parts ➔ Voluntarily (the meaning depends on the ➔ through behavior, we understand context) mental processes ➔ whole (context): when we perceive ➔ there are instances where mental something we always interpret and processes and behavior are not find its meaning by looking at the necessarily consistent (because of context in which it occurs → norms) ➔ norms: expectations to our behavior 5. Psychoanalysis - Freud believed in from our society instincts ➔ certain situations, certain ➔ 2 instincts: life & death expectations ➔ People undergo: Psychosexual stages SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT 1. Structuralism - study of the Freud believed that personality was structures of the mind, the structure determined by… of the mind which is indicated by the 3 PERSONALITY STRUCTURES sensation through introspection. ➔ ID, EGO, & SUPEREGO (meron nga bang structures ang ➔ unconscious, preconscious, mind) conscious part of the mind Introspection - looking inward (looking inside/reflecting your experiences) ★ ID - most primitive part of the mind, ➔ experiences which are indicated by follows the immediate gratification the sensation (IG) principle, it operates in the pleasure principle (I.E. kumain ka) 2. Functionalism - studying how the ★ EGO - follows the reality principle, mind works (tinitignan yung function and if the ID once immediate ng mind) gratification of its needs, the ego Adjustment - observing people through postpones IG until the proper their environment condition is available, delays IG of its needs, the strength of the ego is 3. Behaviorism - focused on the reliant on certain factors such as stimulus that gave rise to a behavior (family upbringing, environment) ➔ mas observable  ★ SUPEREGO - Tip of the iceberg, 4. Psychoanalytic Perspective embodiment of the society's norms and values, conscience 5. Phenomenological - other known as Humanistic Perspective Example: ➔ theory of growth and self-fulfillment ID - Eat (now) ➔ the direction of man is always Ego - 5 mins before recess, you can wait toward growth and self-actualization (later) ➔ we are not determined by faith, but Superego - Bawal kumain (no) we are rational beings - we do things in our free will (free will vs The character of a person is dependent how deterministic) strong the ego. ➔ subjective experiences The child is father to the man. (Freud) CONTEMPORARY APPROACHES Free will vs. Determinism 1. Biological Perspective - they found out that the mind was connected to We do things because we want to, not the biological part of the human because it has been dictated upon us. anatomy (brain) ➔ brain is the seed of the mind. RESEARCH METHODS ➔ Broca - who found out that the left 1. Observation hemisphere of the brain is the ➔ naturalistic - you are not part of the speech center of the brain called subject/context/situation but just a Broca's area watcher; to study behavior in the natural setting 2. Behavioral Perspective - ➔ participant - the observer is part nanggaling sa school of thought ➔ emphasized the study of stimulus 2. Experimental - used to study and response cause-and-effect relationships S → R → Reinforcement - will have to identify its variables (has What reinforcements maintained the value you can manipulate) response? - engages him/herself in the observation 3. Cognitive Perspective - the - can change the participants’ responses to a particular stimulus behavior itself are not necessarily the same behavior changes if they are ➔ give rise to a variety responses watched, it does not allow genuine S → R1, R2, R3... observation ➔ give importance also to the mind/mental processes of the 2 basic variables: person depending on the independent - whose value you experiences manipulate or change S → Mind → (experiences) → R dependent - variable to observe from the independent variable Extraneous variable - 'extra', something ➔ Freedom from coercion that occurs in the experimental design and ➔ right to deny the experiment disturbs the causal relationship between the midway independent and dependent variable. - Occurs in natural setting - This must be controlled, minimized, 2 approaches: eliminated 1. Biological 2. Social 3. Correlational - looking at relationships but not causal BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF relationships PSYCHOLOGY ➔ positive linear relationships: both Importance of Studying Biology in increases Psychology ➔ inverse/negative relationships: as 1. Psychological life depends on one increases the other one biological life for its very existence decreases 2. The brain is the part of the body most intimately linked to 4. Case Studies - study one person, psychological life usually done overtime 3. Individuals are psychological beings ➔ Able to provide interventions living in biological machines (problematic) Biological makeup - set limits and 5. Survey - quantify data parameters of human behavior (always ➔ there are certain aspects psychology elastic - stretch) want to quantify (e.g., consumer preferences, voting choices) Nervous System: Biological Control ➔ Questionnaires Center ➔ Large populations The human nervous system consists of 2 large parts: 6. Testing ○ Brain ➔ needs a licensed tester ○ Spinal cord - consist of ➔ the psychologist should be able to bundle of nerves interpret the results for you Bundle of nerves consists of neurons ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS Neurons - individual 1. Minimal Risks nerve cells, building ➔ ensuring participants enter blocks of with minimal risks neuro-system 2. Informed Consent ➔ Deception → there should be Nerves exit or enter the spinal cord debriefing and brain, linking the brain to every 3. Right to privacy part of the body ➔ anonymity 4. Voluntary Participation  ○ Some nerves carry messages from the different Neural Axons parts of the body to the brain Schwann cell nucleus - provide ○ Some nerves carry nourishment for the axons messages from the brain to Nodes of Ranvier - jump electrical impulse the different parts of the body from one aspect of the axon to the next 1 bundle of nerve - 1 direction Electrical impulse - information processing The neuron is an individual nerve PARTS OF THE NEURON cell that plays the most important 1. Dendrites - branches that extend role in the nervous system out from the cell body and receive ○ In the early 1900s, Santiago messages from other neurons. They Ramon y Cajal described are usually shorter and more them as “the mysterious numerous than axons. butterflies of the soul, the 2. The soma/cell body - contains the beating of whose wings may nucleus and other components someday clarify the secret of necessary for the cell’s preservation mental life.” and nourishment. The cell body is enclosed by a membrane that protects it and allows it to interact with its immediate surroundings. 3. Axon - branch at the other end of the neuron that mostly carry neural messages away from the cell body and transmit them to the next Dendrites - to receive information to the neuron. other neuron a. Called a nerve fiber and is a tail-like structure of the Cell body/soma - provide neuron that joins the cell nourishment/preservation for the neuron body at a junction called the axon hillock Axon - the passage way of information to 4. The myelin sheath is a white, fatty the next neuron coating that encases many axons. It insulates the axon and greatly Axon terminal - end point, transmit increases the speed at which the information from neurons to neurons axon conducts neural impulses. The - Neurotransmitter - releasing parts myelin sheath continues to grow in - Synapses - gaps thickness into late adulthood. Myelin - cover/insulate the axon 5. The axon terminals (terminal - speeds up the process by which the buttons) are located at the end of information is travelled the neuron and are responsible for transmitting signals to other GO BACK - undergo reuptake neurons.  More of the ions inside NEURAL AXONS neurons are negatively rather than positively charged The outside of the cell membrane is concerned with positive sodium ions and the inside of the cell is concentrated with negative PARTS OF THE NEURONS potassium ions 2. In its normal resting state, the membrane is semipermeable. a. A balance exists between the mostly negative ions on the inside and the mostly positive ions on the outside. b. The neuron is said to be Neuronal Communication electrically polarized Neurons transmit messages in the nervous system (either to or from) in 3. When the membrane is stimulated the following steps: by an adjacent neuron, the 1. Transmission of the message semipermeability of the cell from one end of the neuron membrane is lost for an instant. to the other end (neural a. Depolarization happens transmission or action when positively charged ions potential) rush into the neuron. a. Within the neuron 2. Transmission from one 4. Depolarization creates a dramatic neuron to the next neuron chain of events known as the action (synaptic transmission) potential a. Within the synapse 5. During an action potential, a small (outside the section of the axon adjacent to the neuron/gaps) cell body becomes more permeable to the positive sodium ions. Action Potential / Neural Transmission a. Sodium ions rush in, - Charged potassium ions (inside) producing a depolarization in + Charged sodium ions (outside) that part of the axon. b. The membrane quickly ACTION POTENTIAL / NEURAL regains its semipermeability TRANSMISSION and “pumps” the positive 1. Neurons are sacs filled with one type sodium ions back out. of fluid on the inside and bathed in a c. There is a disturbance in the different type of fluid on the outside: adjacent section of the membrane of the axon, so  that it depolarizes, which in - Some neurotransmitters do not turn disturbs the next section attach the dendrites and will undergo of the membrane, and so on. reuptake 6. Neural transmission always operate - Synaptic transmission according to the “all-or-none principle. NEUROTRANSMITTERS 1. Adrenaline - it is produced in high regain semi permeability until it reaches the stress or exciting situations end, electric energy (yung travel) 2. Noradrenaline - affects attention and responding actions in the brain 3. Dopamine - it is associated with feelings of pleasure and satisfaction 4. Seratonin - it is thought to be a contributor to feelings of well-being and happiness. It regulates the sleep cycle with melatonin 5. GABA (Gamma-aminobutyric acid) - major inhibitory neurotransmitter of the brain, whose role is to calm firing nerves in the CNS SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION 6. Acetylcholine - principal Neurons work together in complex neurotransmitter involved in thought, chains, but they are connected to learning, and memory one another. 7. Glutamate - most common ○ One neuron influences the neurotransmitter in the brain and is next neuron through the involved in cognitive functions synapse. 8. Endorphins - range of compounds ○ The small space between released in the brain during two neurons is known as the exercise, excitement, and produce a synaptic gap. feeling of well-being or euphoria ○ The neural message is carried across the gap by GLIAL CELLS chemical substances called Where new neurons grow neurotransmitters. Glial cells support neurons and ○ Neurotransmitters can be transport nutrients from blood excitatory or inhibitory vessels to neurons. Some glial cells produce the myelin sheath that surrounds and insulates axons. Glial cells also influence the transmission of messages from one neuron to another across the Neuro-transmitters - attach itself to the synaptic gaps. next neuron through its dendrites  ○ This is done by absorbing the 1. Afferent neurons are neurons that neurotransmitter from the transmit messages coming from the synaptic gap, releasing more body to the central nervous system. of the neurotransmitter into 2. Efferent neurons are neurons that the synaptic gap, or by transmit messages going out from chemically preparing the the central nervous system to the synapse for transmission different parts of the body. DIVISIONS OF THE PERIPHERAL Sept. 10, 2024 - DIVISION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS) NERVOUS SYSTEM Peripheral - composed of nerves, no big organs REASONS WHY IT IS CALLED THE Somatic nervous system - skeletal CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM movements 1) Location ○ carries messages from the 2) Executive control CNS to the skeletal muscles that control CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM movements of the body. The CNS consists of the brain and ○ These include voluntary and the spinal cord. involuntary movements. The brain controls the functions of ○ It also receives incoming the nervous system. messages from sensory The spinal cord’s primary function receptors and transmits them is to relay messages between the to the CNS. brain and the body, but it also does Autonomic nervous system - some rudimentary processing of Sympathetic and Parasympathetic information on its own. (co-exists together), breathing, ○ A simple reflex is a good heartbeat example. - is composed of nerves that Reflexes send neural messages to carry messages to the glands interneurons in the spinal cord. The and the visceral organs. interneuron transmits a signal to ○ Two functions: body another neuron functions and emotional responses (emotions) Central - located at center of the body, ○ Parasympathetic - for executive control peaceful situation Brain Occurs in a selective Spinal Cord manner (goal: bring the body in balance) PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM ○ Sympathetic - fight or flight The PNS is composed of the nerves situation that branch from the brain and the S - Stands for stress spinal cord to the body. Occurs in a diffuse manner  ○ The ganglia of the DIVISIONS OF THE AUTONOMIC parasympathetic division are NERVOUS SYSTEM separate and are located 1. Sympathetic nervous system - near the individual organs. prepares the body to respond to This results in the “selective” psychological or physical stress. operation of the ○ In many cases, it activates parasympathetic division organs to improve our ability to respond to stress, but in other cases, it inhibits organs that are not needed during the time of stress 2. Parasympathetic nervous system - acts in tandem with the sympathetic nervous system to maintain balanced regulation of the internal organs and the large body muscles The sympathetic nervous system works in a diffuse manner. The parasympathetic nervous system works in a selective manner. DIVISIONS OF THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM (ANS) STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS OF THE All organs that are served by the BRAIN sympathetic division is also served Different functions are performed by by the parasympathetic division. the different parts of the brain. The clusters of cell bodies of All mental functions require the neurons (i.e., ganglia) are organized integrated functioning of multiple in different ways in the two divisions parts of the brain of the autonomic nervous system. ○ The ganglia of the 2 components of emotions sympathetic division are all Physiological arousal connected in a chain near Cognitive Interpretation the spinal column. This results in the “diffuse” THREE MAJOR PARTS OF THE BRAIN operation of the sympathetic AND ITS FUNCTION division. Hindbrain  It is the lowest part of the brain, All of the three above is important in the located at the rear base of the skull. reticular formations. The primary responsibility of the hindbrain is to perform routine The reticular formation “housekeeping” functions that keep ○ is a set of neurons that spans the body working properly. the medulla and the pons. These networks influence PARTS OF THE HINDBRAIN wakefulness, arousal The medulla oblongata (alertness of the body), and ○ transmits signals between attention. the spinal cord and the ○ Dominate medulla and the higher parts of the brain. It pons controls autonomic functions such as heartbeat and Midbrain (MESENCEPHALON) respiration. The midbrain functions help to ○ Cross-over point - point by control important postural systems, which the nerves criss cross particularly those associated with the senses. The pons (bridge) ○ essentially forms a bridge Forebrain (CEREBRAL CORTEX) between the brainstem to the (PROSENCEPHALON) cerebral cortex. It is It is the brain’s largest and most associated with many obvious part. autonomic functions such as It consists of two distinct parts: breathing, taste, sleeping, ○ thalamus, hypothalamus, and and circuits that generate most of the limbic system respiratory rhythms. ○ cerebral cortex ○ One that detects information to rouse your body to wake Hypothalamus Pituitary Adrenal Axis up (HPA AXIS) - operates hormones ○ Important for pain signals PARTS OF THE FOREBRAIN The cerebellum (little brain) 1. The thalamus routes incoming ○ monitors and regulates motor stimuli from the sense organs to the behavior, particularly appropriate parts of the brain and automatic movements and links the upper and lower centers of balance. It has also been the brain. found to be involved in motor 2. The hypothalamus is a small, but learning, sequence learning, vitally important, part of the brain. It reflex memory, mental is intimately involved in our motives function, and emotional and emotions. It is the brain center processing most directly linked to the functions of the autonomic nervous system. 3. The limbic system is composed of ii. Gray - cell bodies of three important parts: the brain (gray a. The amygdala plays a key matter) role in emotion and iii. White - white matter aggression. It also plays a (axons of cortisol key role in the formation of neurons) memories about emotionally-charged events. 4. The cerebral cortex is the largest i. Can govern emotions structure in the forebrain and is and memories involved in conscious experience, ii. Fear - important voluntary actions, language, and workings of amygdala intelligence. (to distinguish what’s a. The cortex has a gray dangerous to you, appearance owing to the cell thus you need to bodies and is often called the remember) gray matter of the brain. iii. Individuals to b. The cortex has a white negative (hardwired) appearance due to the axons b. The hippocampus plays a of the cortical neurons and is major role in the formation of often called white matter of new memories (thru memory the brain. consolidation ⇒ better decision making). LOBES OF THE CEREBRAL CORTEX i. Tired - more honest (i.e late night conversations, no sugar-coating) ii. It “ties together” the sights, sounds, and meanings of 1. frontal lobe occupy the part of the memories stored in skull behind your forehead, various parts of the extending back to the middle of your cerebral cortex and is head. particularly involved It plays a key role in thinking, in spatial memory. remembering, making decisions, c. The cingulate cortex works speaking, predicting the future with the hippocampus to consequences of actions, controlling process cognitive information movement, and regulating emotions. related to emotion Cognitive functions i. Biggest and most It contains the Broca’s area, which advanced part of the is involved in the ability to generate brain language. The motor areas (deliberate actions such as running, taking notes)  running across the back portion of allowing communication between the the frontal lobes guide the control of two halves of the cortex. voluntary movements. ○ The left hemisphere It also plays a role in the regulation governs the right side of the of emotion and socially inappropriate body and is involved in behavior analyzing the verbal information. 2. parietal lobe are just behind the ○ The right hemisphere frontal lobes at the top of the skull. governs the left side of the The somatosensory area is body and is involved in important to the sense of touch and analyzing visual and spatial other body senses that tell the information individual where the hands and feet are and what they are doing. HEMISPHERES OF THE CEREBRAL The amount of area of the cortex CORTEX AND EMOTION devoted to a particular part of the The right side of the cerebral body is not proportional to the size of hemisphere plays a greater role in that body part the expression and perception of negative emotions. 3. Temporal lobe extend backward ○ Visual and spatial information from the area of the temples, occupying the middle area at the —in between them is corpus callosum— base of the brain beneath the frontal The left side of the cerebral and parietal lobes. hemisphere plays a greater role in Both temporal lobes contain the the expression and perception of auditory areas. positive emotions. It also contains the Wernicke’s ○ Analyze verbal information area, which plays a role in the understanding of spoken language PLASTICITY OF THE CORTEX It is the ability of the parts of the 4. occipital lobes are at the base of brain, particularly the cerebral the back of the head. cortex, to acquire new functions that It contains the visual area, which is partly or completely replace the essential in the processing of functions of a damaged part of the sensory information from the eyes brain. FUNCTIONS OF THE HEMISPHERES OF THE BRAIN AS A DEVELOPING SYSTEM THE CEREBRAL CORTEX 1. White matter increases due to the Looking down at the cerebral cortex continued growth of the myelin from the top reveals that it is made sheath through adolescence and up of two halves called the cerebral early childhood. Gray matter hemispheres. decreases due to selective neural These two cerebral hemispheres are pruning, which is thought to improve linked by the corpus callosum,  the efficiency of neural systems by ○ Culture – psychogenetic, eliminating unnecessary neural cells. sociogenic reason 2. New neurons grow in many key ○ Ethnicity areas of the brain into adulthood in a process called neurogenesis “Similarity” ○ Culture THE BRAIN AS AN INTERACTING ○ Family resemblances SYSTEM (genetics) Several parts of the brain process different kinds of related information NATURE: GENETIC INFLUENCES ON at the same time. BEHAVIOR The brain uses parallel processing Inheritance is also important to rather than serial processing psychology because many aspects of behavior are influenced by genes. Humans do not inherit specific September 17, 2024 - INTERPLAY OF patterns of behavior. Inheritance NATURE AND NURTURE seems to influence broad dimensions of one’s behavior. How are humans diverse from each other? GENETIC STUDIES OF NONHUMAN Ethnicity ANIMAL BEHAVIOR Culture In a classic study by Patricia Ebert ○ Psychogenic reason: level and Janet Hyde, they captured wild they internalize cultural house mice and began a program of practices selective breeding ○ Sociogenic reason: occupy In the first generation, females were different social positions in a tested for aggressiveness, divided society into two lines based on their aggressiveness, and bred with How are humans similar from each randomly selected unrelated males other? Implication of the results: GENES Culture AND BEHAVIOR Family resemblances ○ Aggression: aggressive (bred aggressive mice) and Biological and Social Creature non-agressive (bred - Humans have certain limitations. non-aggressive mice) breeding DNA Humans are amazingly diverse, but they George Mendel - experiment on selective are also similar to each other. breeding One individual is different from the other When the most aggressive female “Diversity” house mice in each generation were selected for breeding, each  successive generation became Studies of Adopted Children increasingly more aggressive Studies of adopted children have When the least aggressive female revealed that certain characteristics house mice in each generation (e.g. IQ scores) of adopted children raised under the same conditions are similar to the characteristics of were separately selected for their biological parents (with whom breeding, each successive they share half of their genes) than generation became less aggressive to the characteristic of their adoptive ○ Problem: no interact, control parents (who raised them since the environment infancy but are genetically unrelated to them). In a study conducted by Dutch psychologists, they transplanted the MOLECULAR GENETIC MECHANISMS embryos of aggressive female mice OF INHERITANCE into the wombs of nonaggressive All cells of the body contain microscopic females, and vice versa, and structures called chromosomes. allowed them to rear the “adopted” Chromosomes are long strands of mice pups deoxyribonucleic acid The results of the Dutch study were DNA usually ??? the same, which provides strong evidence that genes influence Mutation → Polymorphic genes aggression in female mice - Dominant - polygenic genes (e.g. black eyes) Genes can define behavior - Recessive - need 2 information (e.g. - Pedeng mamana blue eyes) GENETIC STUDIES OF HUMAN Autosomes - characteristics BEHAVIOR Sex chromosomes - biological sex The two most common types of “natural experiments” involve the study of twins and study of adopted Attachment Theories - Social environment children. Fearful attachment (high anxiety, low avoidance) 2 KINDS OF TWINS Avoidant-resistant (high anxiety, high 1. Identical/Monozygotic - they share avoidance) → complete resistance 100 percent genetic similarities to relationships 2. Fraternal/Dizygotic - do not share Secure (low anxiety, low avoidance) 100 percent genetic Avoidance-detachment (low anxiety, high avoidance) → emotional Twin Studies detachment Monozygotic (identical) twins come from a single fertilized egg until the KINDS OF PARENTING growing clusters of cells  Changed in environment and then reached senses Perception Meaning and/or interpretation that we give to our sensation GENE-ENVIRONMENT CORRELATION Top-down prcoessing; the brain 1. Passive Effect - you do not helps interpret what is sensed deliberately choose your Brain is the seat of consciousness environment Sensation and perception work Environments → Genes → almost at the same time genotype (traits and characteristics mo) There is no strict break between the two Phenotype (gene + environment) (sensation and perception) because most of Genes obtain whatever is in your the time they happen together. environment (e.g math parents = math kid) CHARACTERISTICS OF SENSORY MODALITIES 2. Active Effect - you deliberately 1. Sensitivity - our sensory modalities choose the kind of environment that (e.g. vision, hearing, sense of touch) will sustain a genotype are extremely sensitive in detecting Genotype → environment → phenotype changes in environment. - Based on the make-up of our 3. Evocative Effect - elicit a particular sensory modalities environment and therefore creating TYPES OF SENSITIVITY: your phenotype a. Absolute threshold - the E.g. joyful kid = joyful sensitivity of a sensory environment (they come to modality and is related when you willingly) the change happens in a Genotype → that elicits a particular zero background (hindi environment and therefore creating your makikipacompete sa phenotype stimulus) i. There is a point of Genotype ( → environment) → phenotype uncertainty. ii. e.g., water (tasteless) has sugar (sweet). September 19, 2024 Sweetness then Sensation - sensory modalities reaches your Involves different ssensory absolute threshold. modalities (eyes, ears, nose) may onting Experiences associated with simple pagbabago sa lasa sitmuli mo) Stimulus reaching the senses is called sensation  iii. The background in Mas nakikita mo yung which it is stimulated sa peripheral is not competing because it’s more sensitive b. Difference threshold or Just they do not operate in Noticeable Difference (jnd) the evening i. You notice there is a ○ Cones difference between operate during day the two stimuli, then time they will reach your they allow us to see JND color ii. Referent stimulus is compared with the Optic Nerve is connected to occipital iii. They use lobe psychophysical Where the optic nerve exists the method to test eye, it does not contain cell. It is a absolute and blind spot. difference threshold Our eyes keep moving that’s why things do not disappear. The Once we receive a sensation, there is a neurons in our brain operate for us process called transduction in which the to see objects. physical energy coming from the stimulus is transformed/translated into a Fovea - are blind pact with cones? code/electromagnetic energy that is ○ Retina - made up of layer of accepted by the brain. (at the level of cells, the axons come senses) together to form octic nerve? - By means of sensory coding - then move to occipital lobe depende kung saan galing yung sensation Blind spot - the neurons activate in order to By means of sensory coding depending on see certain things the sensory modality VISUAL ACUITY SENSE OF VISION Snellen’s chart first modality Normal: 20/20 the ability to see an Electromagnetic waves to brain object from 20 feet away when we see Light is an important component of our vision September 24, 2024 SENSATION AND Most important part: Rods and PERCEPTION Cones (found in Retina) ○ Rods SEEING COLOR operate at night Cones are responsible in seeing they will only see gray colors and very light colors  We see colors because of the wavelengths that reach our eyes PITCH PERCEPTION (2 basic theories) Wavelengths turn into color Temporal theory - time Short WL: 450 - 500 nanometers ○ the pitch that we hear (blue) depends on how the sound Medium WL: 500 - 570 nanometers varies with time, this has (green) something to do with the Long WL: 650 - 780 nanometers stimulus that reaches the (red) bacellar membrane (part of Subjective yung the way we see our ear) colors because of our biological ○ depends on how varies with make up. However, at the same time; stimulus that reaches time, it is also objective. the basilar membrane (part OBJECTIVE: 3 Dimensions (organize the of our ear that’s responsible way we view) for determining the pitch). 1. Hue - quality of color, name of object ○ The nerve impulse that’s 2. Brightness - how much light communicated to the appears to be reflected from the auditory nerve. This theory object was not studied well 3. Saturation - purity of color; amount ○ The rate of vibration of pure color determines the rate of a. Ex: Crimson (deep red;less impulses of the nerve fibers presence of white and gray = in the auditory nerve saturated) ○ The pitch that we hear b. pink/mint green (unsaturated) depends on how fast the Stimulus is light vibration of the membrane is in our auditory nerve COLOR DEFICIENCY OR COLOR ○ Nerve impulse - that is BLINDNESS communicated to the can come in the form of being a auditory nerve – connected monochromat (only see whites and to the part of a brain which grays) or dichromat (only seeing two makes us hear a certain kind primary colors) or trichromat (only of pitch see all the colors) Place theory ○ Specific places in the Basilar Trichromat - normal vision in viewing colors membrane vibrates. ○ Depending on the location of AUDITION the basilar membrane led to Stimulus is soundwaves the pitch we interpret Pitch - characteristic of sound ○ the base of the bacellar ○ Psychological quality of a membrane that vibrates sound (high) ○ Sensation based on the ○ the tip of the bacellar frequency of a sound membrane that vibrates (low)  Whether we feel cold or warm OLFACTION depends on the environment around sense of smell us. (depend on the relative) Pheromones are used to attract another insect GATE CONTROL THEORY ○ Used to communicate A mind over matter theory ○ E.g. pheromone-like Endorphins - body’s natural substances (menstruation) painkillers 2 reasons why there are limited Gate in the spinal cord closes and literature regarding olfaction will not allow any sensation to feel. ○ As humans, upright posture - and molecules they descend ENDORPHINS to the ground Body’s natural pain killers ○ We are affected by these reduces pheromones ATHLETE’S HIGH Cataral conditions? The body releases so much Sense of smell easily adapts/habituate endorphins It allows us to sense danger ○ Allows us to survive Sense of smell is facilitated by the CONSCIOUSNESS I Oct 1 receptor cells located in our nose Awareness of external events and internal sensations, including awareness of the self Olfactory bulb - there is an olfactory nerve, and thoughts about experiences it synapses by the olfactory bulb - Santrock, 2003 Directed right below frontal lobe Contents of awareness change from Olfactory cortex - connected to moment to moment hippocampus involve in memory Stream of consciousness - continuous flow of changing sensations, images, thoughts, Odor wheel - what the odor represents; and feelings describes the source of smell. Levels of awareness GUSTATION/GUSTATORY 1. Higher level of consciousness sense of taste Controlled processes Stimulus for sense of taste - ○ Individual can focus on chemicals specific goals ○ Selective attention (e.g. cry Sense of pressure (skin) and of the baby than the noise of temperature washing machine) Pressure - experience of painpain ○ E.g. writing a paper, cooking, Temperature - easily adapts to our reviewing for an exam environment 2. Lower level of consciousness  Automatic processes - because ○ Lucid dreaming - this is when you’re so used to it you’re dreaming and you ○ Require minimal attention know that you’re dreaming and does not interfere with You are actually kind ongoing activities of aware that this is ○ E.g. pag nagtatali ng sapatos just a dream You can control the Daydreaming content of your dream Lie between active consciousness and dreaming 5. No awareness Mind wandering Freud: unconscious thought - reservoir of unacceptable wishes, 3. Altered states of consciousness feelings, thoughts that are beyond Mental states that bare noticeably conscious awareness different from normal awareness ○ Freud theory: he compares Can be caused by drugs, trauma, the human mind into an fatigue, hypnosis, and iceberg sensory deprivation Most is submerged in ○ A state in which you do not water receive any information from Parts that are the world submerged in water = ○ Can happen in laboratory unconscious thought settings/prison cells Unacceptable wishes - not allowed by the 4. Subconscious awareness society Waking subconscious awareness - It will always go out in incubation of ideas the forms of dreams, ○ E.g. during class mannerisms, slip of discussions, you know that the tongue there’s brewing in your mind, an answer to a problem that SLEEP was posed to you, but it altered state of unconsciousness simply cannot like move out Why do we sleep? ○ E.g tip of the tongue a. Evolutionary perspective: to phenomenon, but in conserve energy at night incubation nasa mind sya b. Sleep restores energy and before sa tip of the tongue replenishes our brain and Sleeps and dreams body ○ Sleeps - Some parts of what Onset of REM stops is happening outside, is the release of actually still being monitored neurotransmitters by the brain (monoamines) REM - rapid eye movement stage,  happens right after rhythm with the daily your deep sleep cycle of light and dark Once we enter the based on inputs from REM stage, the the retina neurotransmitters are Located in our not released = since brain no information, brain Monitors the rests changes from c. Assists physical growth and day to night brain development in children Release of growth SLEEP DEPRIVATION hormone related with Affects alertness and cognitive deep sleep performance Kids have more REM Decline in the complexity of brain Growth hormone, activity related with deep Affects decision making sleep SLEEP STAGES BIOLOGICAL RHYTHMS Stage 1: Theta waves (slower in Periodic physiological fluctuations in frequency than alpha waves) the body ○ when we are about to sleep ○ E.g. rise and fall of hormones Stage 2: Theta waves and sleep in the bloodstream; spindles (sudden increase in wave accelerated and decelerated frequency) cycles of brain activity Stage 3 and 4: Delta waves; deep Controlled by biological clocks sleep ○ Annual or seasonal cycles ○ Big and regular brain waves (migration of birds, Stage 5: REM sleep (rapid eye hibernation of bears, movement) fluctuation of eating habits) ○ Dreaming occurs ○ 28-day cycles ○ Fast brain waves ○ 24-hour cycles ○ All the memories are ○ Circadian rhythms gathered together and come Daily behavioral or up with a full story physiological cycle E.g. sleep/wake SLEEP DISORDERS cycle, body 1. Insomnia - difficulty to fall asleep, temperature, blood has something to do with the quality pressure of your sleep Suprachiasmatic 2. Somnambulism - occurs in deep nucleus (SCN) - sleep (sleep walking), caused by monitors the change stress, things that one wants to do from day to night; when they are not allowed to during synchronizes its own the day  3. Sleep talking - caused by stress Dream-for-survival theory 4. Nightmare - frightening dream that ○ Has an evolutionary root awakens a person from REM sleep a. Night terror i. sudden arousal from CONSCIOUSNESS II Oct 3 - Notes sleep; intense fear ii. Accompanied by Hypnosis physiological Trancelike stage of heightened reactions susceptibility to the suggestions of iii. Less common than others nightmares ○ Susceptible - easily 5. Narcolepsy - overpowering urge to influenced sleep; people with this disorder enter Follows a series of steps: REM sleep right away instead of 1. Person made comfortable in a quiet progressing from stage 1 environment 2. The hypnotist explains what is going 90-minute cycle - sleep to happen e.g. that person will be in a relaxed state 6. Sleep apnea - individuals stop 3. Hypnotist tells the person to breathing while asleep concentrate on a specific image or object DREAMS 4. Once the person is in a relaxed Wish fulfilment theory state, the hypnotist gives ○ Manifest content - dream’s suggestions that the person surface content interprets as being in a state of ○ Latent content - hidden hypnosis content, interpretation Cognitive theory People do not lose all will of their ○ Same cognitive concepts that own are used in studying the Will not perform anti-social behavior waking mind Will not carry out self-destructive ○ A mental realm for solving acts our problems and think Differences in people’s susceptibility creatively to hypnosis Activation-synthesis theory ○ 5% of the population cannot ○ Dreaming occurs when the be hypnotized at all cerebral cortex synthesizes ○ 15% are very easily neural signals generated hypnotized from activity in the lower part People who are easily hypnotized of the brain are those who easily gets absorbed ○ Brain’s effort to make sense while reading books or listening to of the neural activity that music, becoming unaware of what is happens in sleep happening around them, spends a ○ Synthesizes ideas lot of time daydreaming Views about hypnosis: 5. Improving athletic performance 1. Divided consciousness Improve concentration High suggestibility, increased ability to recall and construct images, Meditation acceptance of suggestions A learned technique for refocusing Hypnosis brings about a attention that brings about an altered dissociation, a divided state of state of consciousness consciousness into two Repetition of a mantra-a sound, simultaneous components (Hilgard) word, or syllable - over and over ○ One part, following the Focus on a picture, flame, or a commands of the hypnotist, specific part of the body the other part, as “hidden Key technique is to become observer”, aware of what is unaware of any outside stimulation happening around them. to reach a different state of awareness 2. Hypnosis is not a signficantly different state of consciousness Benefits Altered brain waves not a sufficient 1. Gain new insights into themselves evidence; no other physiological and problems changes occur 2. Long term practice may improve Little support that adults can health because of the biological remember childhood experiences changes it produces - Oxygen usage declines, Hypnosis state lies in a continuum - not heart rate and blood totally a different state of consciousness, pressure decline, and brain not totally similar to a normal waking state. wave patterns change (Barnes, et al) VALUE OF HYPNOSIS 1. Controlling pain Drug use can lead to: Childbirth and dental procedures 1. Physical dependence - physiological need for a drug that 2. Reducing smoking causes withdrawal symptoms when Suggest that the smell and taste of it is discontinued cigarettes are unpleasant 2. Tolerance - need to take increasing amounts of a drug to get the same 3. Treating psychological disorders effect Heighten relaxation, reduce anxiety, 3. Psychological dependence - increase expectations of success, strong desire to repeat the use of modify self-defeating thoughts drugs for emotional reasons 4. Assist in law enforcement Addiction: physical or psychological Victims and witnesses better able to dependence or both recall details of a crime From a neurobiological perspective, A stimulus that, before psychoactive drugs increase conditioning, does not dopamine levels in the brain’s reward naturally bring about the pathways (ventral tegmental response we are interested area and nucleus accumbens) in. Drugs that increase dopamine levels in the B. Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) brain are called agonists A stimulus that naturally brings about a response without having learned LEARNING Oct. 8 E.g. dog food - because the - A relatively permanent change in effect on the dog were not behavior that is brought about by learned but they triggered an experience. unconditioned response Maturation - biological process usually in C. Unconditioned Response (UCR) human development/biological unfolding of A natural innate response certain processes in human development that occurs automatically and - E.g. birth may timeline yan needs no training E.g. salivation There are changes brought up by maturation D. Conditioned Response (CR) - Due to practice and experience A response that, after conditioning, follows a Habituation previously neutral stimulus Decrease in response to a stimulus E.g. salivation at the ringing that occurs after repeated of the bell presentations of the same stimulus Permits us to ignore things that have stopped providing new information Most learning is more complex than habituation E.g. rattle Classical Conditioning (learning) Ivan Pavlov - dog experiment The sequence and timing of the Type of learning in which a neutral presentation of the unconditioned stimulus comes to bring about a stimulus and the conditioned response after it is paired with a stimulus is particularly important stimulus that naturally brings about Conditioning is most effective if the that response. neutral stimulus (which will become a conditioned stimulus) precede the Basic Concepts in CC UCS by between a half second and A. Neutral Stimulus (NS) several seconds, depending on what  kind of response is being a conditioned response but the other conditioned. does not. Provides the ability to differentiate Applications between stimuli Emotional responses: fear of mice, spiders; phobias (Little expt.) Operant Conditioning Food with colors of McDo or jollibee Form of learning in which voluntary Avoidance of dentists because of responses come to be controlled by associations of dentists with pain their consequences Post-traumatic stress disorder Skinner: organisms tend to repeat Pleasant experiences: smell of a those responses that are followed by certain perfume: brings about happy favorable consequences thoughts (reinforcement) ○ White rats and sometimes Desensitization/Counter Conditioning - is pigeons a process by which we reverse the ○ Skinner box associations done by classical conditioning Basic Processes in Operant Extinction Conditioning Occurs when a previously 1. Acquisition and shaping conditioned response decreases in Acquisition frequency and eventually disappears Formation of a new response Occurs when the association tendency between a conditioned stimulus and Operant responses are typically unconditioned stimuli established through a gradual Spontaneous recovery: process called SHAPING reemergence of an extinguished Shaping conditioned response after a period is necessary when the organism of time and with no further does not, on its own, emit the conditioning desired response Stimulus Generalization 2. Extinction A process in which, after a stimulus Gradual weakening and has been conditioned to produce a disappearance of a response particular response, stimuli that are tendency because the response is similar to the original stimulus no longer followed by reinforcement. produce the same response. The greater the similarity between Reinforcement - is anything that increases two stimuli, the greater the likelihood the desired response of stimulus generalization Negative Reinforcement - removal of an Stimulus Discrimination aversive stimulus so that a desired Occurs if two stimuli are sufficiently response is going to happen distinct from each other one evokes Positive Reinforcement - presentation of a preceding response/ behavior will be positive stimulus to increase the likelihood repeated in the future - itchy rash - apply ointment, increased likelihood that the same Reinforcement brand will be used again - salivation decreases because of non - removing an unpleasant stimulus reinforcement - E.g. bagong lipat sa isang bahay tas - process by which stimulus increases malapit sa streets and so maingay, the probability that a preceding reduce the noise by wearing behavior will occur again/repeated earphones, or transfer to another location Reinforcer - you do something else in order to - any stimulus that increases the remove an unpleasant stimulus probability that a preceding behavior - teaches the individual that taking an will occur again action removes a negative condition - food, money, binibigay mo, approval that exists in the environment Primary Reinforcer Punishment - satisfies some biological need and - a stimulus that decreases the works naturally, regardless or a probability that a prior behavior will person’s experience occur again - food, warmth, relief 2 types of punishment Secondary Reinforcer 1. positive punishment - a stimulus that becomes reinforcing - weakens a response through because of its association with a the application of an primary reinforcer aversive/unpleasant stimulus - money (use money to buy food) - spanking a child, grounding - ginagamit mo siya para makabili ng primary reinforcer 2. negative punishment - pede mo siyang gamitin in exhange - removal of something for pleasant - demotion with a cut in pay, Positive Reinforcers grounding a child for poor - a stimulus added to the environment grades that brings about an increase in a preceding behavior Advantages of punishment - food, water, money, praise - can suppress a behavior - reward to increase the probability - can provide an opportunity to reward that something will occur a person for subsequently behaving in a desirable behavior Negative Reinforcers - unpleasant stimulus whose removal Disadvantages leads to the probability that a  - ineffective if not delivered 2. interval schedule immediately after the behavior or - fixed interval - time element when the person is able to leave the involved, FI (2 days), it setting in which the punishment is means regardless of the being given number of times that the - conveys the idea that aggression is child washes i will give you a permissible and desirable reinforcement after 2 days - can decrease the self-esteem of - variable interval - average 2 recipients days, minsan after 2 days, 1 - no alternative action is provided day, 3 days, average interval (2 days) Psychological Reactance - happens when our freedom is curtailed Schedules of Reinforcement 1. continuous reinforcement - administration of reinforcement every time the desired behavior occurs - usually used to establish the behavior 2. partial reinforcement (intermittent) - behavior is reinforced but not all the time - used to maintain the behavior types of partial reinforcement 1. ratio schedule - based on the number of times that you engaged in a desired behavior - fixed ratio - e.g 2 times, bibigyan ko siya ng reinforcer, on the 2nd bibigyan mo siya - variable ratio - not fixed, it varies e.g VR (2) sometimes 3, 1, or 2, but on an average of 2 mas marami, di predictable if when ka bibigyan ng reinforcement