General-Biology-Reviewer-_-First-Quarterly-Exams.pdf

General Biology Q1 ୨ৎ Disproving of Spontaneous Generation Quarterly Exam Reviewer | @cheerless_ @itobaeun ୨ৎ 「 ✦ Louis Pasteur ✦ 」 ✦ His experiments irrefutably disproved the theory of...

General Biology Q1 ୨ৎ Disproving of Spontaneous Generation Quarterly Exam Reviewer | @cheerless_ @itobaeun ୨ৎ 「 ✦ Louis Pasteur ✦ 」 ✦ His experiments irrefutably disproved the theory of spontaneous generation. Lesson 01: Cell Theory ✦ “Omne vivum ex vivo” (“Life only comes from life”) ୨ৎ Rafflesia ✦ Rafflesia panchoana ✦ Corpse Flower ✦ Parasite ✦ Botany: Study of Plants ୨ৎ Limatik ✦ Hirudo medicinalis ✦ Blood leech ✦ Hermaphroditic parasites ✦ Zoology: Study of Animals ୨ৎ Discovery of Cell Theory ୨ৎ Discovery of Cells 「 ✦ Matthias Schleiden (1838) ✦ 」 「 ✦ Romans ✦ 」 ✦ German Botanist ✦ Invented and experimented with glasses before the ✦ Concluded that all plant parts are made of cells. microscope was invented. ✦ Produced the earliest form of lens. 「 ✦ Theodor Schwann (1839) ✦ 」 ✦ German physiologist 「 ✦ Zacharias Janssen & Hans Janssen (1590)✦ 」 ✦ A close friend of Schleiden, stated that all animal ✦ Invented the earliest microscope. tissues are composed of cells. ✦ It has two lenses ✦ Compound microscope 「 ✦ Rudolf Virchow (1858) ✦ 」 ✦ German physician 「 ✦ Robert Hooke (1665)✦ 」 ✦ Concluded that cells must arise from preexisting cells. ✦ English scientist who refined the compound microscope with two lenses. ──.✦ The Cell Theory ✦ Examined a thin slice of cork. ✦ All organisms are composed of one or more cells. ✦ Saw small compartments of the cork. (Schleiden & Schwann) (1838-39) ✦ cellula “little rooms” ✦ The cell is the basic unit of life in all living things. (Schleiden & Schwann) (1838-39) 「 ✦ Anton Van Leeuwenhoek (1670)✦ 」 ✦ All cells are produced by the division of preexisting ✦ Created a microscope with higher magnification. cells. (Virchow) (1858) ✦ observed “animalcules” in a drop of water, ✦ Dutch Fabric merchant ──.✦ Modern Cell Theory ✦ described the appearance of bacteria from scraping his ✦ Cells contain hereditary information (DNA) which is teeth. passed on from cell to cell during cell division. ✦ All cells are basically the same in chemical composition 「 ✦ 19th Century Advancement ✦ 」 and metabolic activities. ୨ৎ Spontaneous Generation or Abiogenesis ✦ All basic chemical and physiological functions are ✦ a disproven theory that life can arise from nonliving carried out inside the cells. (movement, digestion, etc.) matter. ✦ Cell activity depends on the activities of sub-cellular ✦ Francesco Redi, John Needham, and Lazzaro structures within the cell (organelles, nuclear, plasma Spallanzani membrane) ──.✦ How Cell Theory has been used? ✦ Disease/Health/Medical Research and Cures(AIDS, Cancer, Vaccines, Cloning, Stem Cell Research, etc.) “Each of us is a universe of our living cells.” - Toba Beta  ──.✦ Coarse Adjustment Knob ✦ Used to focus the microscope. Lesson 02: Microscopes ✦ Always used first and only with the LPO. ୨ৎ Microscope ──.✦ Fine Adjustment Knob ✦ An instrument used to magnify small objects ✦ Used to focus the microscope. ✦ Used with HPO to bring specimen into better focus. ୨ৎ Compound Microscope ✦ Uses lens and light to enlarge specimens. ୨ৎ How to Focus ✦ Commonly used microscope ✦ Start with the LPO lens and crank it as close to the ✦ has two system of lenses for greater magnification: specimen as possible without touching it. ╰┈➤ the ocular, or eyepiece lens that one looks into and; ✦ Look through the eyepiece lens and focus upward only ╰┈➤ the objective lens, or the until the image is sharp. lens closest to the object. ✦ Once the image is sharp with the LPO, do minor ✦ Microscopes are made up of a few lenses for adjustments with the fine adjustment knob. magnification, each lens with its own magnification powers ✦ Continue with subsequent objective lenses and fine and focusing strength. focus each time. ᯓ★ Both eyes should be open when viewing through the ୨ৎ Parts & Functions of a Microscope microscope. ──.✦ Eyepiece ᯓ★ Never let your eye touch the ocular lens. ✦ The lens at the top that you look through. ᯓ★ Always remove eyeglasses when viewing through a ✦ Usually 10x or 15x power. microscope. ──.✦ Body Tube ৎ How to Use ✦ Connects eyepiece to the objective lenses. ✦ Always carry with both hands. ✦ Turn the revolving nosepiece so that the lowest power ──.✦ Arm objective lens is “clicked” into position. ✦ Supports the tube and connects it to the base. ✦ Place the microscope slide on the stage and fasten it ✦ Used along with the base to carry the microscope with the stage clips. You can push down on the back end of the stage clip to open it. ──.✦ Base ✦ Look at the objective lens and the stage from the side ✦ The bottom of a microscope used for support. and turn the coarse focus knob so that the objective lens moves downward (or the stage, if it moves, goes upward). ──.✦ Illuminator Move it as far as it will go without touching the slide. ✦ Steady light source used in place of a mirror. ✦ Look through the eyepiece and adjust the illuminator (or mirror) and diaphragm for the greatest amount of light. ──.✦ Stage ✦ Slowly turn the coarse adjustment so that the objective ✦ Flat platform where specimens are placed. lens goes up (away from the slide). Continue until the image comes into focus. Use the fine adjustment, if ──.✦ Stage Clip available, for fine focusing. If you have a microscope with a ✦ Holds the slides in place. moving stage, then turn the coarse knob so the stage moves downward or away from the objective lens. ──.✦ Revolving Nose Piece or Turret ᯓ★ Do not touch the glass part of the lenses with your ✦ Holds objective lenses and can be rotated to easily fingers. Use only special lens paper to clean the lenses. change power. ᯓ★ When finished, raise the tube (or lower the stage), click the low power lens into position and remove the slide. ──.✦ Objective Lenses ᯓ★ Always keep your microscope covered when not in ✦ Usually you will find 3 or 4 objective lenses on a use. Dust is the number one enemy! microscope. ✦ Consist of Scanning OL: 4x, Low-Power OL: 10x, High-Power OL: 40x, and Oil Immersion: 100x power. ──.✦ Diaphragm or Iris ✦ Controls the amount of light reaching the specimen.  ୨ৎ 3 Main Job of Cells Lesson 03: Cells & Cell Organelles ──.✦ Make Energy ✦ need for all activities ୨ৎ Type of Cells ✦ need to clean up waste produced while making energy ✦ Eukaryotes (has organelles) ──.✦ Make Proteins ╰┈➤ Animal & Plant Cells ✦ Proteins do all the work in a cell ✦ Prokaryotes (no organelles) ✦ Need lots of them ╰┈➤ Bacteria Cells ──.✦ Make More Cells ✦ For growth ✦ Replace damaged or diseased cells. ୨ৎ Organelles ✦ do the work of cells ✦ Each Structure has a job to do ╰┈➤ Keep them alive; keeps you alive ୨ৎ Cells Need Power (Energy) ✦ To fuel daily life & growth, the cell must: ╰┈➤ food intake & digestion ╰┈➤ take in oxygen (O2) ╰┈➤ make ATP ╰┈➤ Remove Waste ✦ Organelles responsible: ୨ৎ Cell Size Comparison ╰┈➤ Cell Membrane ✦ Most bacteria ╰┈➤ Lysosomes ╰┈➤ 1-10 microns ╰┈➤ Vacuoles & Vesicles ✦ Eukaryotic cells ╰┈➤ Mitochondria ╰┈➤ 10-100 microns ᯓ★ micron = micrometer = 1/1,000,000 meter ──.✦ Cell Membrane ᯓ★ diameter of human hair = ~20 microns ✦ Function ✦ Most cells are between 1-100 μm in diameter which can ╰┈➤ Cell boundary: separates cell from outside be visualized by light microscope. ╰┈➤ Movement: controls what enters/leaves cell ᯓ★ O2, CO2, food, H2O, nutrients, waste ──.✦ Why Study Cells? ╰┈➤ recognizes signals from other cells ✦ Cells → Tissues → Organs → Bodies ᯓ★ allows communication between cells ✦ Bodies are made up of cells. ✦ Structure ✦ Cells do all the work of life! ╰┈➤ double layer of fat ᯓ★ phospholipid bilayer (phosphate head + lipid ──.✦ The Work of Life tail) ✦ Breathe ╰┈➤ receptor molecules ╰┈➤ gas exchange: O2 in vs. CO2 out ᯓ★proteins that receive signals ✦ Eat ╰┈➤ take in & digest food ✦ Energy Production ╰┈➤ ATP ✦ Molecule Building ╰┈➤ Proteins, Carbohydrates, Fats, Nucleid Acids ✦ Remove Waste ✦ Control Internal Conditions ──.✦ Cytoplasm ╰┈➤ Homeostasis ✦ jelly-like material holding organelles in place ✦ Respond to External Environment ✦ Build more Cells ──.✦ Vacuoles & Vesicles ╰┈➤ Growth, repair, reproduce, & development. ✦ Function ╰┈➤ moving material around cells ╰┈➤ Food & Water Storage ᯓ★ Central & Contractile Vacuole (Plants)  ᯓ★ Food Vacuole (Animals) ✦ Structure: ╰┈➤ membrane sac ୨ৎ Cells Need Workers = Proteins ✦ To run daily life & growth, the cell must: ╰┈➤ read genes (DNA) ╰┈➤ build proteins ᯓ★structural proteins (muscle fibers, hair, skin, claws) ᯓ★ enzymes (speed up chemical reactions) ᯓ★ signals (hormones) & receptors ──.✦ Lysosomes (Suicidal Bags/Apoptosis) ✦ Organelles responsible: ✦ Function ╰┈➤ nucleus ╰┈➤ digest food ╰┈➤ ribosomes ᯓ★ to make energy ╰┈➤ endoplasmic reticulum (ER) ╰┈➤ clean up & recycle ╰┈➤ Golgi apparatus ᯓ★ digest broken organelles ✦ Structure ╰┈➤ membrane sac of digestive enzymes. ᯓ★ Tay-Sachs Disease ──.✦ Mitochondria ✦ Function ──.✦ Nucleus ╰┈➤ make ATP energy from cellular respiration ✦ Function ᯓ★ sugar + O2 → ATP ╰┈➤ control center of cell ᯓ★ fuels the work of life ╰┈➤ protects DNA ✦ Structure ᯓ★ instructions for building proteins ╰┈➤ double membrane ✦ Structure ╰┈➤ nuclear membrane ──.✦ Chloroplasts ╰┈➤ nucleolus ✦ Function ᯓ★ ribosome factory ╰┈➤ Make energy + sugar from photosynthesis through ╰┈➤ chromosomes sunlight. ᯓ★ DNA ᯓ★ photosynthesis ᯓ★ sunlight + CO2 → ATP & sugar ᯓ★ ATP = active energy ᯓ★ sugar = stored energy ᯓ★ build leaves & roots & fruit out of the sugars ──.✦ Ribosomes ✦ Function ╰┈➤ protein factories ╰┈➤ read instructions to build proteins from DNA ✦ Structure ╰┈➤ some are free in cytoplasm ╰┈➤ some are attached to Endoplasmic Reticulum ──.✦ Endoplasmic Reticulum ✦ Function ╰┈➤ works on proteins ᯓ★ help complete the proteins after the ribosome builds them ╰┈➤ makes membrane ୨ৎ Cells Need to Make More Cells ✦ Structure ✦ To replace, repair & grow, the cell must ╰┈➤ Rough ER ╰┈➤ copy their DNA ᯓ★ ribosomes attached ╰┈➤ make extra organelles ᯓ★ works on proteins ╰┈➤ divide the new DNA & new organelles between 2 ╰┈➤ Smooth ER new “daughter” cells ᯓ★ makes membranes or fatty acids and lipids ✦ Organelles responsible: ╰┈➤ Nucleus ╰┈➤ Centrioles ──.✦ Centrioles ✦ Function ╰┈➤ help coordinate cell division ᯓ★ only in animal cells ✦ Structure ╰┈➤ one pair in each cell ──.✦ Golgi Apparatus ✦ Function ╰┈➤ finishes, sorts, labels & ships proteins ᯓ★ like UPS headquarters ᯓ★ shipping & receiving department ╰┈➤ ships proteins in vesicles ᯓ★ like UPS trucks ✦ Structure ╰┈➤ membrane sacs ──.✦ Summary! Entrance: Cis-face Exit: Trans-face  ──.✦ Shapes of Prokaryote ✦ Cocci - spherical (round) ✦ Bacillus -rod-shaped ✦ Spirilla - helical (spiral) ୨ৎ Cell Summary ──.✦ 3 Main Jobs ✦ To make energy. ╰┈➤ need food + O2 ╰┈➤ cellular respiration & photosynthesis ╰┈➤ need to remove wastes ✦To make proteins. Gram Staining was developed by Hans Christian Gram to ╰┈➤ need instructions from DNA be able to see bacterias that are translucent by the ╰┈➤ need to chain together amino acids & “finish” & “ship” process of staining. the protein ✦To make more cells. ──.✦ Prokaryote cells are simply built: ╰┈➤ need to copy DNA & divide it up to daughter cells ✦ Capsule: slimy outer coating ✦ Cell Wall: together middle layer ✦ Cell Membrane: delicate inner skin Lesson 04: Prokaryotic & Eukaryotic Cells ✦ Cytoplasm: inner liquid filling ✦ DNA: in one big loop ୨ৎ Prokaryote vs Eukaryote ✦ Pillus/Pilli: sticking/attachment ✦ Flagella: swimming ✦ Ribosomes: build proteins ──.✦ Prokaryote Lifestyle ✦ Unicellular: all alone ✦ Colony: forms a film ✦ Filamentous: forms a chain of cells ──.✦ Prokaryote Feeding ✦ Photosynthetic: energy from sunlight ✦ Disease-causing: feed on living things ✦ Decomposers: feed on dead things. ୨ৎ Characteristics of Prokaryotes ──.✦ Chlamydia trachomatis ✦ Simplest type of cells ✦ a common sexually transmitted infection. ✦ Oldest type appeared about 4 billion years ago. ✦ Symptoms: inflammation, burning sensations, ✦ Largest group of organisms pregnancy complications, irregular discharge, and ✦ Unicellular organisms that are found in all environments blindness. ✦ Do not have a nuclear membrane. Circular shaped ✦ Bacterium is a parasitic cell that lives inside of host genetic material dispersed throught cytoplasm. cells. ✦ Do not have membrane-bound organelles ✦ Simple internal structure. ✦ Smaller in size when compared to Eukaryotes. ୨ৎ Characteristics of Eukaryotes ✦ Appeared approximately one billion years ago ✦ Generally more advanced than prokaryotes ✦ Nuclear membrane surrounds linear genetic material (DNA) ✦ Have several different parts ✦ Have complex internal structure ✦ Prokaryote’s organelles have coverings known as membranes. ✦ Larger than prokaryotes in size. ୨ৎ Difference Prokaryotic Cells Eukaryotic Cells Were here first and for Appeared on earth long billions of years. after prokaryotic cells Were the only form of life More Advanced on Earth. Unicellular organism Unicellular or Multicellular Organelles lack Organelles covered by a membrane membrane Lesson 05: Animal Tissues Ribosomes are the only Multiple organelles organelles including ribosomes ୨ৎ Tissues Genetic material floats in Membrane covered ✦ Derived from the French tissu, meaning something that the cytoplasm (DNA & genetic material is woven or “to weave”. RNA) ✦ a cellular organizational level between cells and a complete organ. Circular DNA Linear DNA ✦ Ensemble of similar cells and their extracellular matrix from the same origin that together carry out a Cells are smaller in size Cells are larger in size specific function ╰┈➤ Histology: the study of human and animal tissues. Larger Number of Smaller Number of organisms Organisms ╰┈➤ Extracellular Matrix: also called as macromolecules like carbohydrates and amino acids Appeared 4 billions years Appeared 1 billion years ago ୨ৎ Functions of Tissues ✦ Protection ✦ Connection Similarities ✦ Movement and Locomotion ✦ Transmission of Signals Contain DNA Have Plasma Membrane & Cytoplasm Have Cytoskeleton Have Ribosomes  「 ✦ Pseudostratified Epithelium ✦ 」 ✦ appears to be more than one cell thick since the nuclei lie at different heights, but in single layer. 「 ✦ Transitional Epithelium ✦ 」 ✦ cells are rounded Outer Surface: Apical Inner/Bottom Surface: Basal ──.✦ Types of Epithelial tissue: On the basis of shape Squamous epithelium Lines Blood Vessels, heart, – flat, thin, scale-like cells. air sacs Allows substances to cross by diffusion ୨ৎ Types of Animal Tissue Cuboidal epithelium – Lines kidney tubules, ducts ──.✦ Epithelial Tissue cells that have basic cube of glands, reproductive ✦ Sheet of cells that cover a body surface or lines a shape. tract. cavity. Absorption and secretion, ✦ Purpose which include for protection, absorption, movement of materials excretion, secretion, filtration, and sensory reception. ✦ Can be found in the Skin, Mouth, Nasal cavity, ──.✦ Types of Epithelial tissue: On the basis of Columnar epithelium Lines some airways, parts of – flat, thin, scale-like cells. the gut arrangement of cells 「 ✦ Simple Epithelium ✦ 」 Absorption and secretion,, ✦ found in a single layer to the basement membrane. protection 「 ✦ Compound or Stratified Epithelium ✦ 」 ✦ found in 2 or more layers stacked atop each other. ୨ৎ Simple Epithelium ✦ Consists of a single layer of epithelial cells resting on a basement membrane and is present on those areas where absorption is more. 「 ✦ Glandular Epithelium ✦ 」 「 ✦ Simple Squamous Epithelium ✦ 」 ✦ Secretes Hormones ✦ Location: Air sacs of lungs and the lining of the heart, blood vessels, and lymphatic vessels ୨ৎ Compound Epithelium ✦ Function: Allows materials to pass through by diffusion ✦ Consists of a many layer of epithelial cells of different and filtration, and secretes lubricating substances. shapes representing newly formed and mature cells. 「 ✦ Simple Cuboidal Epithelium ✦ 」 「 ✦ Stratified Squamous Epithelium ✦ 」 ✦ Location: In ducts and secretory portions of small ✦ Location: Lines the esophagus, mouth, and vagina glands and in kidney tubules ✦ Function: Protects against abrasion ✦ Function: Secretes and absorbs 「 ✦ Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium ✦ 」 「 ✦ Simple Columnar Epithelium ✦ 」 ✦ Location: Sweat glands, salivary glands, and the ✦ Location: Ciliated tissues are in bronchi, uterine tubes, mammary glands and uterus: smooth (nonciliated tissues) are in the ✦ Function: Protective tissue digestive tract, bladder. ✦ Function: Absorbs; it also secretes mucous and 「 ✦ Stratified Columnar Epithelium ✦ 」 enzymes ✦ Location: Male urethra and ducts of some glands ✦ Function: Secretes and protect 「 ✦ Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium ✦ 」 「 ✦ Transitional Epithelium ✦ 」 ✦ Location: Ciliated tissue lines the trachea and much of ✦ Location: Lines the bladder, urethra, and the uteres the upper respiratory tract ✦ Function: Allows urinary glands to expland and stretch ✦ Function: Secretes mucus, ciliated tissue moves mucus.  ╰┈➤ Adipose Tissue ✦ Modified form of areolar tissue, contain large number of fat cells (white adipocyte and brown adipocyte) ✦ Found in beneath skin in dermis, around kidney, heart, and eyeballs. ✦ Mostly phagocytic cells, helps in defense mechanism of the body. ──.✦ Connective Tissue ✦ Composed mainly of nonliving extracellular matrix that separates the cells to the tissue. ✦ Around body organs, skeletal tissue such as bone and cartilage, blood, and lymph. ╰┈➤ Structural Framework ╰┈➤ Protection ╰┈➤ Supporting, surrounding, and connecting ✶ White Adipose Tissue ╰┈➤ Defending the body from microorganisms. ✦ made up of white and beige adipocytes ✦ under skin, around internal organs, in central cavities of bones ✦ Main Function: Store energy ✦ Predominant type of fat in body ✶ Brown Adipose Tissue ✦ made up of brown adipocytes ✦ upper back , above clavicles, around vertebrae ✦ Main Function: Generate Heat ✦ more in fetal life and infancy ╰┈➤ White Fibrous Tissue Types of Connective Tissue: ✦ Contains fibroblast cells & collagen 「 ✦ Loose Connective Tissue ✦ 」 fibers. ✦ Cells in the matrix are widely distributed and the fibers ✦ Occurs in 2 forms: tendon (joins are loosely woven. skeletal muscle to bone) & sheath ✦ Connects and support various tissues (pericardium of heart, cornea, spinal ╰┈➤ Areolar Tissue cord) ✦ Simplest and most widely distributed ✦ The dense network of collagen fibers ✦ Found in continuous layers beneath gives great strength. skin, muscles, peritoneum ✦ Binds tissues together, engulf bacteria, produces antibodies. ╰┈➤ Yellow Fibrous Tissue ✦ Contains closely packed yellow elastic fibers. ✦ Present in ligament, wall of blood vessel, respiratory passage and lungs. ✦ Join two bones together. 「 ✦ Dense Connective Tissue✦ 」 ✦ The fibers dominate over the cells and the matrix in quantity. ✦ Regularly or irregularly arranged Types of Dense Connective Tissue: ╰┈➤ Bone ╰┈➤ Dense Regular Connective Tissue ✦ Supportive and protective tissue ✦Fibroblasts are arranged in orderly rows ✦ Bone cell (osteocyte) & collagen fiber are ✦Between parallel, tightly packed bundles of embedded in solid matrix collagen fibers ✶ Compact Bone ✦ Maximizes strength in a single direction ✦ Outside of the bone ✦ Main tissue in tendons ✦ Supportive tissue of the body ╰┈➤ Dense Irregular Connective Tissue ✦ Is the part we call the skeleton ✦ Collagen fibers randomly arranged ✶Spongy Bone ✦ Can withstand stretching in any direction ✦Tissue of the bone ✦ Strong, but light weight. 「 ✦ Fluid Connective Tissue✦ 」 ╰┈➤ Blood ✦Develops in the mesoderm. ✦ Transports oxygen, nutrients, hormones and removing wastes. ✶ Red Blood Cells ✦ Erythrocytes ✦ transports oxygen and carbon dioxide ✶ White Blood Cells ✦ Leukocytes ✦ Destroy bacteria and produce 「 ✦ Supportive Connective Tissue✦ 」 antibodies ╰┈➤ Cartilage ✶ Platelets ✦ Tough, hard but flexible tissue. ✦ Thrombocytes ✦ Resist strain and can absorb mechanical shock. ✦ Prevents bleeding ✶ Articular & Cartilage ✶ Plasma ✦ at the end of every bone ✦ Maintain blood pressure and regulates ✦ less frictions and allows us to run and body temperature jump ╰┈➤ Lymph ✦ Has plasma, but lacks in RBC, platelets. ✦ Includes lymph nodes, spleen, tonsils, and thymus. ✦ Acts as “middleman” which transports oxygen, food materials  「 ✦Skeletal Muscle Tissue ✦ 」 ✦ called striated due to its appearance consisting of light and dark bands ╰┈➤ striated: thin structure ✦ Functions: ╰┈➤ movement of skeleton ✦ under conscious control ✦ limbs, fingers, toes and neck ╰┈➤ movement of tissues ✦ facial expressions under conscious control ✦ ability to smile and frown 「 ✦ Cardiac Muscle Tissue ✦ 」 ✦ muscles are striated, branched and y-shaped and have a single central nucleus ✦ Function: Pumping of blood through blood ✦ Deoxygenated: right atrium, right ventricle and to the lungs ✦ Oxygenated: Left atrium, left ventricle, to the aorta then the rest of the body ──.✦ Muscle Tissue ✦ Made up of highly specialized thin and elongated cells called muscle fibres. ╰┈➤ Parts of muscle fibers: Sarcolemma, Sarcoplasm, Myofibrils, and Striations. ╰┈➤ Types of Muscle Tissue: 「 ✦ Smooth Muscle Tissue ✦ 」 ✦ muscle is not striated ✦ muscle fibers are small and tapered ✦ the ends are reducing in size, contrary to the cylindrical shape of skeletal muscle ✦ This is important to the digestive system ✦ helps to move food along the gastrointestinal tract as well as breaking food down further ╰┈➤ Types of Nervous tissue 「 ✦ Neuroglia ✦ 」 ✦ Neuro = nerve; Glia = glue ✦ Supports neurons and fibers ✦ Cells arranged as an epithelial layer 「 ✦ Neurosecretory ✦ 」 ✦ Type of neuron or nerve cell ✦ Translates neural signal into chemical stimuli ──.✦ Nervous Tissue ✦ Main tissue component of the two parts of the nervous system; Central Nervous System and Peripheral Nervous System. ╰┈➤ Central Nervous System (CNS): Brain and Spinal Cord ╰┈➤ Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Branching peripheral nerves that regulates and controls bodily functions. ──.✦ Neurons ✦ Sends and receive electrochemical signals. ✦ Signals travel along plasma membrane to the end of cytoplasmic extensions. ╰┈➤ Cell Body: The enlarged portion of the neuron that contains the nucleus. ✦ The “Nutritional Centre” where the macromolecules are produced. ╰┈➤ Dendrites: derived from the greek word Dendron which means tree branch. ✦ Provide a receptive area that transmits electrical impulses to the cell body. ╰┈➤ Axon: has a longer process that conducts impulses Lesson 06: Plant Tissue away from the cell body. ✦ The origin of the axon near the cell body is an expanded region called the axon hillock. ୨ৎ Plant Tissues ✦ can be grouped into plant tissue systems each performing specialized functions. ୨ৎ Plant Tissue Systems ──.✦ Lateral ✦ is defined as a functional unit connecting all organs of ✦ Occur in mature regions of shoots and roots a plant. ✦Called secondary meristems ──.✦ Types of Plant Tissue ──.✦ Intercalary ✦ Occur between mature tissues ✦ Regenerate the parts removed by grazing animals in grasses ୨ৎ Permanent Tissue ✦ Are derived from the meristematic tissues and have lost their ability to divide. ✦Acquire a definite shape, size, and function. ──.✦ Types of Permanent Tissue ✦ Simple Permanent Tissue ୨ৎ Meristematic Tissue ✦ Tissue that comprises of same type of cells which ✦ from Greek word “meristos” which means divisible. perform the same function and arise from the same ✦Consist of a group of cells that have the ability to origin. divide. ──.✦ Characteristics of Meristematic ✦ Cells are small. ✦ Cells are usually cubical. ✦ Cell wall is thin. ✦ Nuclei are large. ╰┈➤ Parenchyma ✦ Vacuoles are almost absent. ✦ Cells of this tissue are loosely packed ✦ Cells are tightly packed that almost no intercellular and contain large intercellular spaces. spaces between them. ✦ The functions of parenchyma tissues ──.✦ Types of Meristematic Tissue are storage, photosynthesis and to help the plant float on water. ✶ Chlorenchyma (photosynthesis) ✶ Aerenchyma (floating in water) ╰┈➤ Collenchyma ✦Irregularly thicker cell wall due to deposition of cellulose. ✦ Provides mechanical support and assess a week flexibility. ✦ Below the epidermis of stem and ──.✦ Apical petiole (stalk of the leaf). ✦ Occur in shoot and root tips ✦Produce primary tissues ✶ Shoot Apical System ✶ Root Apical System  ᯓ★ Non-Living: Sieve tubes, companion cells, and phloem parenchyma ᯓ★ Living: phloem fibers ╰┈➤ Sclerenchyma ✦Tissue of dead and thick-walled A cells, having no intercellular spaces. ✦ It provides strength to plant parts. ✦ Seed coat, husk of coconut, hard covering of fruits and nuts. ✦ Complex Permanent Tissue ✦ Tissue made up of more than one type of cells. ୨ৎ Nutrient Transport ╰┈➤ Xylem ✦ transport water and minerals from roots to Xylem (Upwards) all parts of the plant Phloem (Upwards and Downwards) ᯓ★ The tracheids and tracheae are described as 1. The membranes of sieve tube cells can use active essential elements as they directly translocate water and transport to move sugars from their cytoplasm into the minerals sieve tube itself. ᯓ★ Xylem Fibers and Xylem Parenchyma are associated 2. Water then follows by osmosis, creating pressure in the elements since they support tube at the source of the sugars. ᯓ★ Non-Living: Tracheids, tracheae, and xylem fibers 3. If another region of the plant has a need for sugars, they ᯓ★ Living: xylem parenchyma are actively pumped out of the tube and into the surrounding tissue. Water then leaves the tube via osmosis, reducing the pressure. ╰┈➤ Osmosis: High Concentration to Low Concentration ╰┈➤ Phloem ✦ helps to transport food (sugar) from leaves to all other parts of the plants. ᯓ★ the sieve tubes and companion cells directly translocate organic substances as they are essential elements ᯓ★ Phloem Parenchyma and Phloem Fibers are associated elements as they support the structure ୨ৎ Difference between Xylem & Phloem ╰┈➤ When cells grow, the plasma membrane must expand to allow internal volume of the cell to increase ╰┈➤ Cell growth is accompanied by cell division and produces daughter cells ୨ৎ I. Interphase ୨ৎ Plant Tissue System ✦ Growth phase where a cell spends most of its time ✦ Cell mass increases gradually as it prepares for cell division ✦ S phase (Synthesis), G1 phase and G2 phase (Gaps between S phase and M phase) ᯓ★ Gap 1 (G1 ): cell growth and normal functions ᯓ★ DNA synthesis (S): copies DNA ᯓ★ Gap 2 (G2 ): additional growth (chromatids become replicated chromosomes) ᯓ★ Mitosis (M): includes division of the cell nucleus (mitosis) and division of the cell cytoplasm (cytokinesis) ୨ৎ II. Mitosis ✦ M phase (Mitotic) or division phase: nucleus and cytoplasm divides → daughter cells ✦ The division of the nucleus into 2 nuclei, each with the same number of chromosomes Lesson 07: Cell Cycle ୨ৎ Cell Cycle ✦ a repeated pattern of growth and division that occurs in eukaryotic cells ╰┈➤ DNA: ᯓ★ DNA is located in the nucleus and controls all activities including cell division ᯓ★ Long and thread-like DNA in a nondividing cell is called chromatin ᯓ★ Doubled, coiled, short DNA in a dividing cell is called chromosome. ╰┈➤ Chromosomes: ╰┈➤ Inspection Point: control mechanism that ensures ᯓ★ As the nucleus prepares to divide, replicated that the cell is ready to proceed to the next stage. DNA in interphase joins to form sister ╰┈➤ Check Point: Done at the very end of the cycle and chromatids, joined by a centromere (holds 2 checks for cell size and nutrient sufficiency chromatids together) Application of Cell Cycle: ✦ The process where a new skin cell is formed at the deepest layer of the epidermis and works its way up to the surface of the skin. ୨ৎ Mitosis Overview Note: Goodluck to everyone! — Eun ୨ৎ ╰┈➤ Prophase ✦ Chromosomes coil up ✦ Nuclear envelope disappears ✦ Spindle fibers form ╰┈➤ Metaphase ✦ Chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell. ✦ Spindle fibers connect to chromosomes. ╰┈➤ Anaphase ✦ Chromosome copies divide. ✦ Spindle fibers pull chromosomes to opposite poles ╰┈➤ Telophase ✦ Chromosomes uncoil ✦ Nuclear envelopes form ✦ 2 new nuclei are formed ✦ Spindle fibers disappear ୨ৎ Cytokinesis ✦ The division of the rest of the cell (cytoplasm and organelles) after the nucleus divides ✦ In animal cells the cytoplasm pinches in. In plant cells a cell plate forms.