FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY (1).pdf

PsYcHolOGy oF ViOleNcE- haTE cRimE, seRIal kiLlINg, MasS muRdER, hoMIciDE Lubnaa Shibu B.Sc. Applied Psychology 3rd year, PPSH Chinmaya Vishwa Vidyapeeth TAbLe OF coNtENtS 01 02 hoMIciDE SerIaL kILliNg 03 04 MasS muRdER HatE CriME INtRodUCtiON Violence vs Aggression, Characterististics and research study on violent crime, types of violence, causes of violence Forensic psychologists frequently encounter violence as well as aggression. They are asked to; - Assess the risk of violence of the given individual - Testify for a victim in court etc, Therefore, understanding of the prevalence, causes, and effects of violence is critical for forensic psychologists. ViOleNcE Vs aGgREsSiOn Violence is commonly defined as physical force exerted for the purpose of inflicting injury, pain, discomfort, or abuse on a person or persons or for the purpose of damaging or destroying property. Aggression on the other hand is behavior perpetrated or attempted with the intention of harming another individual (or group of individuals) physically or psychologically. Violence involves physical force, aggression may or may not involve this. ResEaRcH daTA anD sTatIStiCs ResEaRcH sTudIeS Recent research focus on two things; characteristics and demographics of the individual violent offender, and immediate contexts and environments in which violence most often occurs. 1. Studies focusing on the former have examined the social, psychological, and biological factors in interpersonal offending. 2. Studies in the latter tradition have examined family, peer, local community, and neighborhood effects on varying levels of violence. Research has shown, for example, that the relationships among racial/ethnic composition; feelings of anger, resentment, and frustration; and homicide rates are contingent—at least in part—on the level of economic deprivation, joblessness, drug use, and number of gangs within a given community (C. C. Johnson & Chanhatasilpa, 2003). ResEaRcH sTudIeS 1. Homicide: -Rate and Trends: The homicide rate in India has been around 3 per 100,000 people in recent years. The trend has been declining over the last few decades. -Factors: Most homicides in India are related to interpersonal disputes, family feuds, or property issues. ResEaRcH sTudIeS 2. Serial Killing: -Incidence: Serial killings in India are rare and often involve financial gain, personal vendettas, or psychological issues. -Notable Cases: High-profile cases like the "Nithari killings" or the "Cyanide Mohan" case have garnered significant attention. ResEaRcH sTudIeS 3. Mass Murder: -Incidence: Mass murders are often associated with terrorist attacks or communal violence in India. Incidents like the 2008 Mumbai attacks are rare but devastating. - Contexts: These events often occur due to socio-political reasons, including terrorism, insurgency, or communal riots. ResEaRcH sTudIeS 4. Hate Crimes: -Rate and Trends: Hate crimes in India are often linked to communal, caste, or religious tensions. The exact rate is difficult to ascertain due to underreporting, but incidents like mob lynchings have been reported in recent years. -Factors: Hate crimes often arise from deep-rooted socio-political issues, and they are sometimes exacerbated by inflammatory rhetoric or socio-political movements. In India, the rate of violent crimes such as homicide, serial killing, mass murder, and hate crimes is generally lower compared to some other countries, but it varies significantly across different regions and contexts. diSAdVanTAgeS DatA RepORtiNg ANd SoUrCes OF cHalLEnGes daTA -Underreporting: There is a significant issue with National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB): underreporting and misclassification of crimes in The NCRB is the primary source for crime India, particularly with hate crimes and mass statistics in India, though it may not violence. capture the full extent of certain crimes -Variability: The rates of these crimes can vary like hate crimes or serial killings. significantly by region, with some states having higher incidences due to local tensions or socio-political factors. GenDEr, RacE, etHnIC diFfERenCEs iN cRimE UCR (uniform crime reporting system- of USA) data consistently indicate that males account for 80% to 90% of total arrests for violent crimes in any given year. Males account for about 89% of the annual arrests for murder (FBI, 2016a). This 9:1 ratio is characteristic of other countries as well. Arrest rates for aggravated assault are slightly different, with 77% male and 23% female. Although women’s violent crime rate increased faster than the men’s rate for a brief period in the mid-1990s, women continue to be far underrepresented in the violent crime statistics. The two dominant explanations for the gender discrepancies in violent offending are (1) socialization factors (the fact that women are less likely than men to be encouraged to be violent) and (2) biological factors (with some researchers linking the male hormone testosterone to aggression). Women also are said to have less opportunity to commit the violent street crimes that come to the attention of police. Thus, some theorists have suggested that violence perpetrated by women may go undetected and unreported because it is more likely to occur in the privacy of the home. Even if this were so, it would be unlikely to narrow the gender gap in violent offending because much male violence in the home also goes undetected and unreported. Males are often encouraged to adhere to stereotypical masculinity, which includes risk taking, use of aggression, and toughness. GenDEr DifFEreNcES -Perpetrators: Men overwhelmingly represent the majority of offenders in violent crimes. According to the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB), men account for over 90% of arrests for violent crimes such as homicide, assault, and sexual violence. -Victims: Men are also more likely to be victims of general violent crimes, whereas women are disproportionately affected by domestic violence and sexual assault. In 2021, the NCRB reported that women were victims in 94% of rape cases. RacE anD EtHniC dIFfeREnCes -Perpetrators and Victims: India's diverse population includes various racial and ethnic groups, including Scheduled Castes (SC), Scheduled Tribes (ST), and Other Backward Classes (OBC). Certain communities, particularly those in marginalized groups, are more likely to experience violence, including hate crimes, communal violence, and systemic oppression. -Caste-Based Violence: Caste-based violence remains a significant issue. In 2021, the NCRB reported over 50,000 cases of crimes against Scheduled Castes, with offenses ranging from assault to murder. -Communal Violence: Communal violence, which often has ethnic and religious undertones, is another area where disparities are evident. Incidents such as the 2002 Gujarat riots and more recent clashes highlight the deep-seated tensions between different religious and ethnic communities. StaTIsTicS AnD daTA -Crimes Against Women: In 2021, over 428,278 cases of crimes against women were reported, including domestic violence, rape, and dowry deaths. -Caste-Based Crimes: Crimes against Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes constituted a significant proportion of reported crimes, with 50,900 cases against SCs and 8,272 cases against STs reported in 2021. -Communal Violence: Although the numbers vary yearly, incidents of communal violence have led to significant casualties and property damage, often affecting ethnic and religious minorities disproportionately. TyPes OF viOLenCE violence may represent different forms of aggression, ranging from instrumental to reactive. Instrumental violence “occurs when the injury of an individual is secondary to the acquisition of some other external goal”. The external goal may be money, status, security, or material goods. Reactive violence also called expressive violence, refers to physical violence precipitated by a hostile and angry reaction to a perceived threat or dangerous situation. Reactive violence, therefore, “is often the impulsive and unthoughtful response to a provocation, real or imagined”. An angry person who “flies off the handle” and shoots a friend over a petty argument represents an obvious example. Are ThEY moRE liKElY to coMmIT inStRumENtaL Or reACtiVE foRmS of viOLenCE? Woodworth and Porter (2002) have initiated some research into this area by studying both psychopathic and non-psychopathic offenders who committed homicide. According to these researchers, psychopaths tend to engage in the more instrumental, goal-driven (e.g., to obtain money or drugs) homicides, Psychopaths who murdered were primarily motivated to advance their own cause and exhibited little empathy or concern for their victims. non-psychopathic offenders engage in predominantly reactive, spontaneous violence (e.g., in the context of a heated argument). Woodworth and Porter were surprised, though, at the overall level of instrumental violence characterizing all homicides, whether committed by psychopaths or non-psychopaths. The majority of the offenders did not simply “snap” and kill their victims in an uncontrollable emotional rage. CaUseS Of ViOleNcE? CaUseS Of ViOleNcE 1. 2. NeUroBIolOGicAL SocIaLIzaTIon faCtORs faCtORs 3. 4. CogNItiVE SitUaTIonAL faCtORs faCtORs NeUroBIolOGicAL faCtORs 1. Neurological and Neurochemical Inﬂuences on Aggression and Violence - Neurological and neurochemical inﬂuences on the brain throughout life can result in high levels of aggressive and violent behavior. 2. Brain Damage and Dysfunction - Advances in neuroscience have shown links between violence and brain damage or dysfunction due to environmental risk factors (Hubbs-Tait et al., 2005; Raine, 2013). 3. Environmental Risk Factors and Neurotoxins - Prominent environmental risk factors include neurotoxins such as trace elements, pesticides, chemicals, and biological elements like lead, cadmium, and manganese (Hubbs-Tait et al., 2005). - Neurotoxins can lead to neurocognitive dysfunction, predisposing individuals to antisocial behavior and violence (Raine, 2013). 4. Malnutrition and Neurodevelopment - Malnutrition can signiﬁcantly impact brain neurodevelopment. It affects an estimated 167.2 million preschool children worldwide (Waber et al., 2014). - Prenatal and early childhood malnutrition are linked to adverse outcomes, including conduct problems and aggressive behaviors in children and adolescents. 5. Intervention and Mitigation - Remedies and neurological interventions, such as medication, are commonly used to mitigate these effects. - A supportive and competent social environment can neutralize or mitigate the impact of neurobiological factors on the propensity toward violence. - Social factors are crucial in interacting with biological forces in causing crime and in directly producing the biological changes that predispose a person to violence (Raine, 2013). SocIaLIzaTIon FAcTorS Socialization refers to the processes through which a person learns patterns of thinking, behavior, and feeling from early life experiences (APA, 1996). According to the American Psychological Association, socialization is the process by which a child learns the "scripts" for speciﬁc social behavior, as well as the rules, attitudes, values, and norms guiding interactions with others. social situations. SocIaLIzaTIon FAcTorS 1. Learning Through Observation - Children can learn from observing signiﬁcant or admired individuals in their environment, not just from their own direct experiences. - This observational learning can include family members, peers, and media ﬁgures such as TV, movie, and online characters. 2. Learning Aggressive and Antisocial Behaviors - Research indicates that aggressive, antisocial, and violent behaviors are often learned from signiﬁcant others and media ﬁgures. - These learned behaviors may be stored and later expressed in response to speciﬁc social situations. CogNItiVE faCtORs Cognitive factors refer to the ideas, beliefs, and patterns of thinking that develop through interactions with the world over a person’s lifetime. CogNItiVE faCtORs 1. Information Processing in Violent Individuals - Research shows that violent individuals process and interpret information differently from non-violent individuals. - They often perceive hostility in others even when no hostility exists, a phenomenon known as hostile attribution bias. 2. Problem-Solving and Conﬂict Resolution - Violent individuals are generally less capable of thinking of nonviolent solutions to social conﬂicts and disagreements. CogNItiVE faCtORs 3. Acceptance of Violence - There is a greater acceptance of violence among individuals prone to aggressive behavior. - Some young males, especially those in violent peer groups or gangs, may adopt the belief that it is acceptable to respond to any perceived or imagined disrespect with aggression. SitUaTIonAL faCtORs Situational factors refer to characteristics of the environment, such as stress or aggression in others, that can encourage or lead to violent behavior. Research suggests that situational causes of violence are often overlooked in favor of focusing on the individual. SitUaTIonAL faCtORs 1. Aversive Situations - Almost any aversive condition, such as excessive heat, continuous loud noise, or crowded living conditions, can provoke aggression and violence. - Neighborhoods, schools, families, and peer groups can all create environments that foster the development of violent behavior. 2. Presence of Weapons - The presence of weapons increases the likelihood of conﬂicts and the probability that these conﬂicts will have lethal consequences. 3. Impact of Deprived Environments - Children raised in deprived environments characterized by poverty, frustration, and hopelessness are at a greater risk for involvement in violence. - However, it is important to note that not all children in such environments follow a destructive path. 4. Childhood Aggression as a Predictor of Adult Violence - Research indicates that about 10% of highly aggressive children grow up to account for 50% to 60% of violent crimes (Bartol & Bartol, 2011). - During childhood, these individuals often show aggression, disobedience, and disruptions at home and in school, are neglected by parents and teachers, and are disliked by peers. - Without supervision, they may fall under the inﬂuence of delinquent peers and grow into antisocial and sometimes violent adults. 5. Violence as a Learned Behavior - Violence is ultimately a learned behavior, acquired early in life. - Because it is learned, it can also be unlearned or altered, or environmental conditions can be changed to prevent its acquisition in the ﬁrst place. - Therefore, prevention of violence should ideally begin early in life. A siGnIFicANt aMOunT Of ResEaRcH haS sHowN tHat VIewINg viOLenT meDIa is ONe faCtOR coNtRIbuTInG to ThE deVEloPmENt oF agGrESsiON anD viOLenCE EfFecTs oF vIoLEnT meDIa 1. 2. It increases the viewer’s fear of becoming a victim, with a It desensitizes the viewer to corresponding increase in violence. That is, viewers often self-protective behaviors and become less sensitive to the pain increased distrust of others and suffering of others. EfFecTs oF vIoLEnT meDIa 4. 3. It demonstrates how desired goods It encourages some individuals and services can be obtained to become more involved in through the use of aggression and violent actions. violence. EfFecTs oF vIoLEnT meDIa 5. Sexual violence in X- and R-rated ﬁlms has been shown to increase sexual aggression in some males. Long- term effects also occur as a result of learning and storing violent and aggressive material in the cognitive system that eventually “crystallizes” and is difficult to change as the child gets older. Young children are especially open to new learning, and these experiences often have a greater impact during the early developmental years than learning events that occur during adulthood. According to Huesmann et al., long-term relations have been ascribed mainly to acquisition through observational learning of three social-cognitive structures: 1. schemas about a hostile world, 2. scripts for social problem solving that focus on aggression, and 3. normative beliefs that aggression is acceptable. Observational learning refers to the very strong tendency of human beings to imitate any signiﬁcant or admired person or model they observe. Children are especially prone to doing this. Consequently, observation of speciﬁc aggressive behaviors around them increases children’s likelihood of behaving exactly that way. Over time and with frequent exposure to aggressive behavior, children develop beliefs (schemas) that the world is basically a hostile place, that aggression is an acceptable social behavior, and that the best way to solve conﬂicts and to get things is to be aggressive. 01 CriMInaL hOMicIDe HOMICIDE is the killing of one person by another. Criminal homicide is the causing of the death of another person without legal justiﬁcation or excuse. Under certain conditions, the killing of another person can be justiﬁed (such as in self-defense) or excused (such as if the perpetrator was legally insane). CriMInaL hOMicIDe MurDEr maNsLAugHtER unlawful killing of one unintended killing that human by another with results from unjustifiable malice aforethought, either conduct that places others expressed or implied at risk TyPE oF mURdeRs-baSEd oN pLanNInG anD pRemEDitATiOn FIrSt-DEgReE SEcoNd-DEgReE usually considered a capital offense, suggests less planning and punishable by death or life in prison. premeditation, but still malice. Killing one's own wife to gain property or ﬁnancial gain. -well planned CriMInaL hOMicIDe MurDEr maNsLAugHtER unlawful killing of one unintended killing that human by another with results from unjustifiable malice aforethought, either conduct that places others expressed or implied at risk ManSlAuGhTEr May include an intended killing “for which there is mitigation- acts that are provoked by the victim, or that result[s] from temporary and understandable circumstances that compromise the actor’s normal responsibility” (Morawetz, 2002, p. 398). For example, a father who comes upon a car accident, discovers that his daughter has been killed, and chokes to death the inebriated driver of the car that hit her would likely be charged with nonnegligent manslaughter, not murder. ResEaRcH sTudIeS UCR (United States): Includes both murder and nonnegligent manslaughter under "criminal homicide." NCRB (India): Reports criminal homicide under the category of "murder." NCRB Murder Statistics (2022): - Total murder cases: 29,272, marking a slight decrease from the previous year. - Murder rate: 2.1 per lakh population, showing relative stability over the years. - States with the highest number of reported murders: Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Maharashtra. - Common causes: Personal enmity, property disputes, and socio-economic factors. Homicide-Suicide Overview: - Many murderers kill themselves shortly after committing their crimes, often at the same location. Clinical Characteristics: - Consistent worldwide, with perpetrators predominantly being men (95% in the United States). Homicide-Suicide in India: - No precise data available on rates, but globally and anecdotally, such incidents are more common among men. - Contributing factors: Greater access to weapons, higher rates of violent tendencies, and cultural or social pressures. Politically Motivated Homicide-Suicide: - Includes acts like suicide bombings, where terrorists use explosives to target speciﬁc locations. MulTIpLe mURdeR/mULtiCIde SerIaL mURdeR incidents in which an individual (or individuals) separately kills a number of people (usually a minimum of three) over time. The time period or The "cooling-off-period" may be days or weeks but more likely months or even years. SpReE muRdER the killing of three or more individuals without a cooling-off period, usually at two or three different locations. MasS muRdER involves the killing of three or more persons at a single location with no cooling-off period between the killings. MAsS mURdeR ClaSsIC maSs MurDEr Las Vegas mass shooting in October 2017 FamILy MasS muRdER at least three family members are killed by another immediate family member or relative. Very often, the perpetrator kills himself or herself. Homicide-suicide rates high here. 02 SerIaL kILleRs WhaT dOeS A seRIal KIlLer LOok LIke? Theodore Bundy, the handsome, charming, intelligent law student who brutally killed dozens of women in the Paciﬁc Northwest, Arthur Shawcross, the dour, rumpled, aging serial killer of primarily prostitutes in the Rochester, New York, There is no single identiﬁable serial killer type based on physical appearance, social class, or personality attributes. Research suggests that most serial killers are males, but there are exceptions, such as Aileen Wuornos, convicted of killing six men, who was executed by lethal injection in 2002 Guess the serial killers Serial killers have many of the same personality traits or behavioral features as the general public. However, the one trait that appears to separate them from the norm is their exceptional interpersonal skill in their presentation of self (Fox & Levin, 2003). Their ability to charm and “fool” others often elevates them beyond suspicion and makes them difficult to apprehend. (This may explain why victims allow serial killers into their homes or go willingly with them on dates or other engagements.) SEriAL kiLlERs 01 02 03 04 PhYsICal DEmoGrAPhiCs PErSonALitY MOtiVEs APpeARanCE TrAiTs 04 05 05 06 07 08 VIcTim MEtHodS BEhaVIoUR LOcaTIon ANd SEleCtIoN PAtTerNs GEogRApHy SEriAL kiLlERs 09 10 MEnTal EScaLAtiON PrOCesSEs 01 PhYsiCAl aPpEaRAnCe: - There is no single identiﬁable physical type. - Serial killers can range from charming, handsome, and intelligent (e.g., Ted Bundy) to unkempt and inconspicuous (e.g., Arthur Shawcross). 02 DemOGraPhICs: - Most serial killers are male, but approximately 16% are female. - Female serial killers tend to target those with whom they share relationships, such as husbands, intimates, or people in their care (e.g., Aileen Wuornos). 03 PerSOnaLItY tRaItS: - Serial killers may exhibit charm and interpersonal skill, allowing them to avoid suspicion. - They may appear similar to the general population, but their cognitive processes are marked by a lack of empathy and concern for others. - Serial killers are not typically psychotic or mentally disordered in the clinical sense. 04 MotIVes: - Control and dominance over victims are central motives. - Psychological rewards like media attention, excitement, and power tend to be primary drivers rather than material gain. - Violent fantasies are central to their actions and can be regularly rehearsed and reﬁned in their minds. 05 VicTIm SelECtiON: - Often target strangers, typically individuals who are transient or marginalized, such as prostitutes, runaways, and homeless individuals. - Over time, they may seek more challenging victims, such as college students, children, or the elderly. - Female serial killers often target individuals they know or those in their care. 06 MetHOdS: - Serial killers prefer methods that offer control over their victims, such as choking or stabbing, rather than quick, distant methods like ﬁrearms. - Weapons like ﬁrearms may be used to intimidate but rarely to kill. 07 BehAViOr PatTErNs: - Serial killers may develop fantasies of dominance and violence, which they progressively try to enact. - They tend to rehearse these fantasies, often inspired by violent pornography or other imagery, and reﬁne their methods through multiple attempts. - They may collect trophies (e.g., clothing, photos, body parts) as memorabilia to relive their crimes and enhance fantasies. 08 LocATiOn aNd GeOgRapHy: - Serial killers often avoid committing murders in their hometowns, but select victims near their current residence or workplace. - Some operate within a speciﬁc geographical region, while others commit crimes across wider areas. 09 MenTAl ProCEsSes: - Serial killers may have above-average intelligence, which helps in the planning and execution of their crimes. - Their cognitive processes are marked by extreme versions of reality that support their criminal behavior. 10 EsCalATiOn: - The severity of the crimes often increases over time as the killer attempts to perfect the fantasies they’ve developed. - Each new victim offers an opportunity to reﬁne and escalate the violence to match their internal fantasy. https://youtu.be/UTu-qIfxJxU?si=OL1jmC9cnV8oIeRj SerIaL kILleR tYpoLOgiES tYpoLOgY refers to a particular system for classifying personality or behavior patterns. (Although it does have some disadvantages like overlap b/w categories) Holmes and DeBurger classify serial killers into a typology based on motive. The typology outlines four types SerIaL kILleR tYpoLOgY VisIoNArY MisSIon- tYpe orIeNtED tYpe HedONisTIc PowER- tYpe coNtROl TyPe The VIsiONarY tYpe - is driven by delusions or hallucinations that compel him to kill a particular group of individuals. - This type of serial killing is psychotic- which is atypical because serial killers are not usually mentally disordered and suffer from a severe break from reality. - They are difficult to understand for investigators/ the public alike. - Crime seen is chaotic and has an abundance of physical evidence often including fingerprints and even the murder weapon. - When this type kills, it is usually within their comfort zone, meaning near his residence, place of recreation or workplace. (geographical profiling is a useful tool in the detection of this offender) - Unlike most serial killers, however, the visionary murderer has no ideal victim type (IVT). That is, there are rarely any common physical (hair color, sex, age, or race), occupational, or personality traits that connect the victims. - The murder is usually spontaneous and characterized by very little planning, and the victim is simply in the wrong place at the wrong time. miSsIoN- OriENteD tYpe - believes that there is a particular group of people who are considered undesirable and who must be destroyed or eliminated. - prostitutes; gays, lesbians, and transgender individuals; “street people”; or members of a particular religious, racial, or ethnic minority group. - The serial killer is not psychotic or otherwise mentally ill. (unlike visionary type) HedONisTIc TyPe - strives for pleasure and thrills, and, in the killer’s mind, people are simply objects to use for one’s own enjoyment. - According to R. M. Holmes and Holmes (1998), hedonistic killers may be divided into three subtypes based on the primary motive for the murder: LusT- primary motive is sex, even if the victim is already dead (an activity called necrophilia): “He kills for sex; it is a propelling element in the motivation to kill and in the enjoyment he receives from his activities”. Furthermore, “The killer kills in ways that reﬂect both the fantasy and the manner in which the fantasy is to be satisﬁed”. is always seeking the IVT that is sexually appealing to him. E.g; Ted Bundy- reported the way a woman talked or walked was imp in his victim selection. ThRilL- primarily motivated to induce pain or a terriﬁed reaction from the victim. The pain and terror engendered, in combination with the process of the murder itself, are highly stimulating and exciting for the killer. Usually, the killer has no relationship with his victim, although he may have followed her for some time. Similar to the lust killer, the thrill murderer selects victims based on certain physical characteristics that feed into his fantasies. ComFOrT- is to acquire activities (business interests) or objects (money) that provide a comfortable and luxurious lifestyle. The killer’s victims presumably stand in the way of achieving this. “The comfort killer’s main objective is to enjoy life and to be sufficiently in control of immediate circumstances so that ‘the good life’ can be attained”. “overt, blatant displays of fatal aggression are not characteristics of this type; most comfort-oriented murderers tend to kill quietly if the situation permits”. For the comfort killer, the act of murder is incidental to the pursuit of material gain and a comfortable lifestyle. Female serial killers often fall into this category. dispose of their victims when they have identiﬁed a potential new “mark.- PowER-coNtROl KilLEr: obtains satisfaction from the absolute life or death control he has over the victim. Sexual components may or may not be present, but the primary motive is extreme power, and dominance over the helpless victim. They also tend to seek speciﬁc victims who appear especially vulnerable and easy to victimize. SERIAL KILLER TYPOLOGIES THE VISIONARY THE MISSION THE POWER THE TYPE ORIENTED CONTROL HEDONISTIC TYPE TYPE TYPE LUST THRILL COMFORT 03 MasS muRdER MasS muRdER 01 02 03 04 NatURe Of OfFenDEr SuIciDE anD moTIveS tHe cRIme idENtiFIcaTIon suICidE By Cop 04 05 05 06 07 PsYcHolOGicAL Use Of VicTIm pRofILe ﬁREarMs seLEcTiOn 01 NatURe Of The CrIMe: - Mass murder typically occurs suddenly and unpredictably. - It rarely involves a sequel, unlike serial murder. - Terrorist mass murders are often studied separately due to their political or group-related motives. 02 OfFenDEr iDEnTifICatIoN: - The perpetrator is often immediately identiﬁable. - Motives can sometimes remain unclear. - Many mass murderers die at the scene, often by suicide or at the hands of the police. 03 SuIciDE anD "suICidE By Cop”: - "Suicide by cop" is common, where perpetrators deliberately place themselves in danger of being killed by law enforcement. - Only 21% of mass murderers commit suicide, and 2% attempt it, with 3% being fatally shot by police. - Family mass murders are the type most likely to end with the perpetrator committing suicide. 04 MotIVes: - Motives can vary greatly and include revenge, hatred, loyalty, greed, or other factors. - Victims may be targeted for personal reasons, for being part of a speciﬁc group, or chosen randomly. - Many mass murders, especially those targeting groups, may qualify as hate crimes. 05 PsYcHolOGicAL pRofILe: - Mass murderers are often described as frustrated, angry individuals who feel helpless and powerless. - They are typically between 25 and 45 years old. - They often have experienced signiﬁcant loss (e.g., job loss, relationship breakdown) and blame others for their failures. - Social isolation and withdrawal are common traits, and they often lack a strong social network. - Compared to serial killers, mass murderers are more likely to suffer from clinically recognized mental disorders. 06 Use Of FirEaRmS: - Approximately two-thirds of mass murders (both classic and family) involve ﬁrearms, especially semiautomatic weapons with high-capacity magazines. - These weapons enable the rapid killing of multiple victims in a short time. 07 VicTIm SelECtiON: - Victims may be chosen based on revenge or what they represent to the perpetrator. - In some cases, victims belong to speciﬁc groups, potentially qualifying the crime as a hate crime. 03 HatE or BIas cRimES HatE CriMEs, also known as biAS cRimES, are criminal offenses motivated by the offender's bias against a group the victim belongs to or is perceived to belong to. Hatred or prejudice alone does not constitute a hate crime; there must be an underlying criminal act such as assault, vandalism, arson, or murder. The common protected categories in hate crime laws include race, religion, gender, disability, sexual orientation, and ethnicity. Prevalence: - Hate crimes account for about 4% of all criminal violence. - In 2015, 5,850 hate crime incidents were reported, encompassing both violent and nonviolent offenses. ChaLlENgeS In DocUMenTAtiON: Hate crimes are difficult to document because the offender’s bias may not always be clear. - Varying statutes and data collection methods across jurisdictions complicate the estimation of hate crime prevalence. - Law enforcement records hate crimes only when sufficient evidence shows the offender’s actions were motivated by bias. Evidence used to support bias includes oral comments, written statements, gestures, drawings, or graffiti made or left at the crime scene. - Younger offenders (under 18) are more likely to commit property-related hate crimes, such as vandalism. - Older offenders are more often arrested for violent hate crimes, such as aggravated assault. - Hate crime violence often stems from learned prejudice against particular social groups. - This prejudice, combined with fear and association with like-minded individuals, can lead to violence when the perpetrators feel their lifestyle is threatened. RefERenCEs National Crime Records Bureau. (2022). Crime in India 2021: Statistics. Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India. https://ncrb.gov.in/en/crime-india Schlesinger, L. B., Kassen, M., & Mesa, V. (2020). Serial and mass murder: Understanding the psychology, psychopathology, and techniques of murderers. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 50, 101329. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2019.101329 Stein, R. (2016). The 2008 Mumbai terror attacks: Strategic failures and the subcontinent’s enduring conflict. International Security, 40(2), 69-104. https://doi.org/10.1162/ISEC_a_00216 Mehta, P. B., & Kapur, D. (2017). The rise of hate crimes and intolerance in India. The Journal of Asian Studies, 76(1), 169-191. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0021911816002058

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