Neuro Final Exam Study PDF

NEURO FINAL EXAM Expect multiple questions on: Strengths & Weaknesses of Cognitive Neuroscience Methods (e.g., EEG/ERP, ECOG, fMRI, TMS, VLSM, structural MRI, DTI/DWI, PET, MEG...) – Spatial resolution, timing resolution, causality, invasiveness, sensitivity to neurotransmitters, etc. EEG – Electro...

NEURO FINAL EXAM Expect multiple questions on: Strengths & Weaknesses of Cognitive Neuroscience Methods (e.g., EEG/ERP, ECOG, fMRI, TMS, VLSM, structural MRI, DTI/DWI, PET, MEG...) – Spatial resolution, timing resolution, causality, invasiveness, sensitivity to neurotransmitters, etc. EEG – Electroencephalogram – scalp recording evoked by brain potentials (measures brain waves) - Functional - Recorded in ERP (event related potentials) – functional scalp recordings - positive or negative voltage peaks occurring at specific time points after the stimulus onset - non–invasive - Better temporal resolution than spatial resolution - EEG is better with precisely measuring when brain activity occurs but struggles to pinpoint the exact location of brain activity - Neurotransmitters can severely impact EEGs - The Inverse Problem – fundamental limitation to spatial localization of EEG and MEG – it's hard to determine the exact location and distribution of electrical sources in the brains based on electrodes ECOG – intracranial EEG or electrocorticogram – surgically implanted electrodes - Functional - A recording of brain waves that uses electrodes placed directly on the brain - Invasive - Advantage over EEG – ECoG offers significantly better spatial resolution due to its direct placement on the brain surface fMRI – functional magnetic resonance imaging – brain activity utilizes oxygen which changes magnetic state of blood - Non invasive - Modest temporal resolution - Recorded in rapid MRI movies - Neurotransmitters impact fMRI by indirectly influencing the blood oxygen level dependent (BOLD) signal, which is the primary measure of brain activity in fMRI, through their interaction with neurons and subsequent changes in local blood flow - BOLD – blood oxygenation level dependent - Hemoglobin molecule carries oxygen to the brain – oxy and deoxy have different magnetic states which show the BOLD signal - Block design – Continuous sustain blocks of stimulus - Low temporal resolution - Better for robust signals  - Better for movement, visual, perception, cognitive tasks - Event related – Isolated individual events - High temporal resolution - Better for decision making, attention, or emotional responses when time is crucial TMS – transcranial magnetic stimulation – a focal magnetic pulse delivered non invasively - Functional - A time varying magnetic field induces a current to flow through the tissue - relatively moderate spatial resolution - offers a relatively high level of temporal precision, allowing researchers to study brain activity within milliseconds VLSM – Voxel-based lesion-symptom mapping– Combines structure images of the brain and neuropsych tests to diagnose - Structural - Percentage of voxel show mange in patient groups - Can be used for fluency and comprehension aphasia understandings - digital imaging technology and software to help visualize the location of brain damage and its impact on cognitive and behavioral outcomes Structural MRI – magnetic resonance imaging - strong magnetic fields causing proton alignment in body - Non invasive – but experience and only anatomy static images - Magnet can be somewhat of a risk if you have certain metals in your body DWI – diffusion weighted imaging (DTI – diffusion tensor imaging) - Form of a structural MRI - Measure which matter integrity - highly cellular tissues or those with cellular swelling exhibit lower diffusion coefficients - Isotopic in gray matter - Spatial resolution vaires - Low temporal resolution CT – computed tomography – x ray sent from many different positions surrounding body - Structural - Computes a 3D volume from 2D images - Inexpensive, noninvasive - Images aren't super good though PET – positron emission tomography – injecting agent into body to measure metabolic brain activity - Functional neuroimaging - Non invasive - Using radioactive labels - Scanner is a gamma ray sensor MEG – magnetoencephalography – uses sensitive magnetometers to record the magnetic fields produced by the brain's electrical currents - Functional - MEG is more sensitive to detecting currents on the surface of the scalp than EEG. MEG also has better spatial resolution than EEG fNIRS – functional near infrared spectroscopy – uses light to measure blood oxygenation - Functional - Noninvasive - Measures hemodynamic responses like fMRI - Unconstrained (good for babies) - Bad spatial and time resolution Taxonomy of multiple memory systems - Long Term Memory - Declarative Memory – explicit - Episodic – Events – specific personal experiences from a particular time and place - Semantic – Facts – world knowledge, object knowledge, language, conceptual knowledge - Nondeclarative Memory – implicit - Procedural – skills (motor and cognitive) - Basal Ganglia and Skeletal - Perceptual representation system – percept priming - Percept association and neocortex - Classical conditioning – conditioned response between 2 similar - Done in the cerebellum - Non associative learning – habituation and sensitization - Reflex pathways - Sensory, Short Term Memory, Working Memory - 4+- items in memory, second to minutes lasting, when were consciously aware Patient H.M. – surgery and memory properties - Bilateral medial temporal lobe damage - bilateral mesial temporal lobe resection in 1953 to treat his epilepsy - Anterograde Amnesia – Severe deficits in acquiring new declarative memory (unable to making new episodic and semantic memories) “knowing that” – still had his nondeclarative/implicit learning memory - Meaning he could be primed - “Knowing how” (motor tasks) – mirror learning tasks - Skills Memory Patients RB, KF, KC & Clive Wearing - RB – ischemic event (stroke) that destroyed his ability to form new memories  - Anterograde amnesia - section of his hippocampus, called CA1, was injured - KF – severe deficit in holding words in working memory - Problems with the phonological loop - Short term memory problems - Able to make new declarative memory (semantic knowledge and memories from events) - Left lateral parietal lobe damage - KC – semantic memory intact, new learning is someone possible - Anterograde amnesia - elective retrograde amnesia for personal events experienced prior to the time of his injury - Damage to medial temporal lobes, dorsolateral PFC, occipital lobe, and hippocampus - A good case study for double dissociation - Clive Wearing – “worlds worst amnesia” - Very few declarative memories (LTM episodic/semantic); procedural memory remains intact - Bilateral hippocampus, inferior frontal and temporal lobes Sensory & Motor Map representations in the brain Brain-Computer Interfaces - Brain computer interface – electrodes planted in primary morto cortes - Animal trained to do something → electrodes records a population vector as the animal moves → computer learns how brain worlds - Monkey marshmallow robot arm - BCI relies heavily on external computers - Patients must also learned how to precisely move not just ideas of movement Population Vector Coding - Computation that could be makes using a population of neurons - 360 of possible movements – record preferred direction of movements of individual neurons - A different cell has different preferred directions but similar shows curves - If we record all possible preferred neurons (vectors) we can predict where a moment geos → magnitude of vector = how much a neuron is firing Cochlear Implants - Are successful because in the auditory system there is less of a strip of neurons than the visual system - Most successful with implantation at a young age – because of neuroplasticity - Sound it captured → processed → transmitted into radio frequency → converted into electrical impulses Deep Brain Stimulation - Invasive - Electrodes implanted into cortex - Can be used with Parkinson's patients Basal Ganglia dysfunction in Parkinson’s and Huntington’s Diseases - Parkinsons – loss of dopamine (most common in Substantia Nigra) - Dopamine is released in striatum (Basal Ganglia) - Positive symptoms – resting tremors, rigidity - Negative symptoms – postural instability, hypokinesia (when your movements are not as wide-ranging as they normally should be), freezing, bradykinesia (slowness of movement and speed (or progressive hesitations/halts) as movements are continued) - Increased inhibition of the thalamus - Direct pathway → striatum lost - Huntingtons – genetic neurodegenerative disorder - chorea/hyperkinesia – increased involuntary movements - Loss of inhibitory neurons in indirect pathway - Reduced inhibition of the thalamus Basal Ganglia structures – primarily involved in motor control, gate-keeping mechanism for the initiation of motor movement, effectively choosing which actions to allow and which actions to inhibit - Components - Striatum – caudate nucleus, putamen - Globus pallidus - Subthalamic nucleus - Substantia nigra (where dopamine is released/stored) Chomsky’s Views on Language - Language is standard equipment in human - Language Acquisition Device – mental grammar exists - Brain must have a program to build an unlimited sets of sentences - Innate, universal grammar – children develop complex grammar rapidly and without formal instruction Brain Structures supporting episodic memory - Hippocampus – first person memory of events - Tulving – episodic memory theory – hippocampus is only responsible for episodic memory encoding, storage and retrieval - Encoding – encodes information by labeling and organizing sensory information from the environment - Hippocampus – encoding of new memories, especially declarative memory (facts and events) - PFC – higher-order functions such as attention, decision-making, and working memory - Storage – the process of retaining information that has been encoded - Basal Ganglia – procedural memory - PFC – working memory and executive function - Hippocampus – Short-term & Declarative Memory Storage (facts and events) - Retrieval – the process of accessing information from memory storage and making it conscious again Brain Structures supporting working memory - temporarily holding and manipulating information needed for tasks such as reasoning, decision-making, problem-solving, language comprehension, and planning - prefrontal Cortex (PFC) – dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), plays a central role in working memory. It is involved in the active maintenance, manipulation, and organization of information - posterior parietal cortex, is crucial for spatial working memory and attention - Visual spatial components - anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) plays an important role in monitoring, error detection, and conflict resolution within working memory tasks - basal ganglia, particularly the striatum, support aspects of working memory that involve motor control and habitual behaviors. - hippocampus is traditionally associated with long-term memory formation - cerebellum plays a role in working memory by supporting the coordination of cognitive processes Baddeley Model of Working Memory  - Central executive theory - Directs attention and controls the flow of information Double dissociation for STM & LTM Retrograde, Anterograde amnesia - Parkinsons and double dissociation – card game example - Patients are slow to learn Parkinson's patients do not learn – striatum is key structure - a person can have a selective impairment in either their ability to recall old memories (retrograde amnesia) or form new memories (anterograde amnesia) while still having relatively intact function in the other memory system - Meaning these memory processes are distinct and rely on different brain region - STM: Relies on structures such as the prefrontal cortex, parietal cortex, and posterior cortical regions. - LTM: Relies on structures like the hippocampus, medial temporal lobe, and regions of the cortex involved in storage and consolidation. Hebb’s Rule - Cells that fire together, wire together - strength of connections (synapses) between neurons increases when those neurons are activated simultaneously, leading to the formation of long-term changes in the brain's neural circuits - EX: eventually riding a bike becomes an unconscious motor skill Memory consolidation - Process in which STM are transformed into LTM - Sleeping is when prime memory consolidation occurs - Slow-Wave Sleep (SWS) - REM Sleep: Rapid Eye Movement (REM) – for procedural memory Semantic Dementia - episodic memory is retained - gradually lose the ability to recognize objects, understand word meanings, and recall facts about the world - Left anterior lobe atrophy – loss of both linguistic and nonlinguistic knowledge - In Alzheimers, semantic dementia damage is in medial lateral temporal lobe rather than left anterior (double dissociation) Alzheimer’s disease - Degenerative memory loss - Amyloid plaques between neurons and neurofibrillary tangles in neurons - Mild cognitive impairment is precursor for alzheimer's/dementia – a person to have more memory or thinking problems than others of their age Cognitive Maps – O'keefe and Nadal - suggests that animals (including humans) form a mental representation of their environment, which allows them to navigate effectively even in novel or unfamiliar areas - Place cells - anchors of cognitive maps that orient an encode spatial location - Involved in hippocampus Grid cells - Located in the entorhinal cortex - Coordinate for spatial navigation Relational Memory Theory - Memory is not just recall of facts…involves encoding, storing, and retrieving relationships between elements within a particular experience - We remember how different pieces of information relate to one another in space, time, or context, not just as discrete units. - Hippocampus and the formation of new networks - Mostly episodic and semantic memory Dorsal and Ventral Attentional Control systems - Dorsal – directed attention - Endogenous, voluntary and goal riven - Intraparietal sulcus, superior parietal lobule, frontal eye field - Ventral – orienting system - Exogenous, stimulus driven attention - TPJ (IPL/STG), VFC Endogenous vs Exogenous attention - Exogensuo – reflexive - Comes from outside of the mind (alert to changes in the world) - Endogenous – voluntary - Erected by mind not stimuli (ex: hormones) Spatial Neglect – phenomena, underlying brain damage - neuropsychological phenomenon where individuals fail to attend to, or respond to, stimuli presented on one side of space, despite having no sensory deficits in that region - Hemispatial neglect - hemispheric asymmetry - Right hemisphere damage causing neglect for the left side of space - Balint's syndrome – damage to both hemispheres (posterior parietal deficits) - Impacting perception, spatial understanding, and motor coordination - Simultagnosia – only able to perceive one stimulus at a time. Phrenology & its discrediting – Joseph Gall in the 1700s - Unsound claims - All mental faculties are innate - Study brian through bumps on the skull - Character traits are mental faculties - Mental faculties are proportional to size of brain area (can be somewhat true) - One to one mapping between brain center and mental function (can be somewhat true) Implicit Memory - the use of stored knowledge without awareness effort - Unconscious and automatic Premotor Theory of Attention - Suggest satta shits in attention and preparation of goal directed actions are closing linked - Spatial attention and motor task links - Movement planning areas and attention areas are linked Capacity Limits in Attention & Working Memory & Long term memory - Attention – we can only focus on a small subset of stimulus at ones - Cocktail party effect/dichotic listening - We don't notice changes in a speakers semantic content, language, and backward speech - We will noticed changes in volume, intonation, and speaker gender - The Bottleneck Model – Suggests that attentional resources are limited, and only a small amount of information can be processed at once. - Working Memory – STM plus of minus 7, but more realistically 4 - Long Term Memory – unlimited capacity technically but retrieval can be constrained because of different reasons - Forgetting due to lack of encoding or interference Saliency Map & Priority Map - Saliency Map – theoretical idea for predicting eye movements of attention - Bottom up map of relative interest of scene regions  - Priority Map – neural representation that helps the brain decide which sensory stimuli or actions should be given priority for further processing or action - Guided by spatial attention - Salience-Based Priority Map - Gial baked priority map Change Blindness & Inattentional Blindness - Change Blindness – exogenous distortion to mask and exogenous stimuli - Cornell door experiment/ image - blank screen - changed image - If there's widespread change, our attention is not cued - Inattentional Blindness – “looking but not seeing” – endogenous masks exogenous - Salient stimuli goes undetected (texting while driving) Go Signal (motor system) - Gates motor output - Part of the Basal Ganglia Direct Pathway - The striatum (specifically, the putamen and caudate nucleus) receives input from the cortex →The striatum sends inhibitory signals to the globus pallidus internus (GPi) → Inhibition of the GPi disinhibits the thalamus, allowing for increased activity in the motor cortex. - Parkinsons go signal is interrupted – therefore they have Bradykinesia (inability to start moving quickly) Mirror neurons & Mirror neuron network - cells respond to an action whether its actually performed of just observed - Monkey see monkey do - Watching another person perform a task like a complex dance sequence that they are familiar with active mirror neurons - Also used in social cognition - Empathy - Mentalization Split Brain Surgery - Cut brain at the corpus callosum in order to inhibit excess firing - Usually done on patients with severe epilepsy - With exception of speech, production each heather has competence in every cognitive domain - Left brain – logical - Language has left hemisphere bias - Right brain – feeling - Vision has modest right hemisphere bias - Right hemisphere still processes language but is mute with little grammar and awareness Structural vs. Metabolic/Functional Brain Deficits  - Structural Brain deficits – physical changes in brain tissue - Can be studied using MRI, CT - Common for Neurodegenerative diseases, trauma, stroke, malformations. - Alzheimer's disease, stroke, multiple sclerosis, TBI. - Direct impairment of cognitive, motor, or sensory function. - Metabolic/Functional Brain deficits – Altered brain activity or energy use without structural damage. - Can be studied using a fMRI, PET scan, EEG (brain activity, blood flow, glucose metabolism). - Neurotransmitter imbalances, vascular issues, metabolic dysfunction, psychiatric disorders. - Depression, schizophrenia, epilepsy, Parkinson’s disease (functional aspects). - Altered cognition, mood, or behavior due to disrupted brain activity. Representation & Transformation of Information in the Brain - Top down – focus on tasks being solved and the computational constraints on solutions - Most abstract to least abstract - Marr's 3 levels - Computation theory– what a process does and what rules and constraints are on a process - Representation and algorithm – for input output and intermediate states - Hardware implementation – same alcoholism can be represented in many different technologies - Bottom up – startswith computation performed by neurons, them build up networks - Crude elements - Barlows Neuron Doctrine – nervous system function and structural units is the individual neuron (ignores levels of emergence) - High speed of object recognition suggests there is a parallel processing system for visual input - 150 millisecond of processing time - We're able to recognize things from different contexts, angles etc. - MIT vision project – tried to simplified object region and failed - Mental modules – specific circuits dedicated to honoring specialized information - Domain specific (language) versus domain general (exec function) Phineas Gage - Damage to left orbitofrontal cortex and medial PFC - Poor decision making, unethical behavior, no longer observed social conventions - Did not have TPJ damage Belmont Report & its principles - Respect (informed consent), Beneficence (do not harm), Justice (fair selection)  - Came from the unethical Tuskegee study Causal & Correlational Research Methods - Causal – perturbation of the brain (invasive) - Correlational – manipulating cognitive function - Most cognitive neuroscience experiments are non invasive and correlational Coronal, Sagittal & Axial (transverse) views of the brain Anatomy of the Language Network - Brocas – non fluent aphasia - Left inferior frontal gyrus - Wernickes – fluent aphasia - Posterior superior temporal gyrus - Heschels – main auditory cortex - Superior temporal gyrus – speech and language comprehension - Supramarginal gyrus – phonological loop, connections between phonemes and meaning - Angular gyrus – relation to phonology - Articulate fasciculus – fluency - Insular – recurring utterances - Basal ganglia (striatum) – linguistic computations - FOXP2 gene - Visual word form area - Superior and posterior to FFA Default Mode Network - Deactivated during directed attention  - Not the same as the ventral network - Ventromedial PFC and medial posterior cingulate cortex - Competes with dorsal attention network - Language processing - Social cognition activation Brodmann Areas - Mapped cerebral cortex - Cytoarchitectural – local architecture of neural connections, 6 layers of cell bodies which vary in terms of density across cortical areas. Sulcus, Gyrus, Fissure - Sulcus – a groove in cerebral cortex - Gyrus – a bulge in cerebral cortex - Fissure – a very deep groove in cortex - Sylvians – lateral fissure, central fissure Location of Primary Sensory & Motor Cortices Hierarchical Processing in the Visual System - Hierarchical coding hypothesis – multiple structures for predictive assumptive models - Gnostic unit – neuron that can recognize a complex object - Allowing for sparse coding – representation of many objects - Features become an object - “Grandmother cell” hypothesis – extreme form of hierarchy, a single cells proposed to sit at top do hierarchy with the job of recognizing only the tempest pacific complex objects - Ensemble coding hypothesis – alternate to grandmother cell - Groups of neurons code high level features - Shared properties groups together Face Processing Network - Fusiform face area – where facial recognition occurs - Inferior temporal lobe – ventral/lateral - Occipital face area - superior temporal sulcus Theory of Mind & Brain structures – Cognitive ability to represent the information in the minds of others distinguishing them from what we know - Happens around 4 year old - RTPJ – false belief reasoning and understanding when people hold beliefs that are different from reality - Medial Prefrontal Cortex (mPFC) – reasoning about others' beliefs, intentions, and desires. - Dorsal mPFC: Involved in reasoning about others' thoughts and intentions. It's active when we think about the mental states of others and how these mental states may influence behavior. - Ventral mPFC: Associated with processing emotions and understanding others' emotional states, contributing to affective ToM, which is the ability to empathize with others and understand their emotional experiences. Speech Phonology Processing - Perceptual influences; supporting brain structures - neural processes involved in recognizing, interpreting, and producing speech sounds (phonemes - Smallest unit of speech - Coarticulation – how phonemes influence each other in rapid speech - McGurk effect – speech perception integrates both auditory and visual information - Primary auditory cortex – Heschl's Gyrus - basic acoustic properties such as pitch, loudness, and timing - Superior Temporal Sulcus (STS) - phoneme recognition, intonation, and prosody - Wernicke's Area (Posterior Part of the Left Superior Temporal Gyrus) - language comprehension, particularly for understanding spoken and written language  - Broca's Area (Left Inferior Frontal Gyrus) - speech production, including the motor planning of phonemes and articulatory movements - Arcuate Fasciculus - white matter pathway that connects areas responsible for speech comprehension (Wernicke’s area) with those responsible for speech production (Broca’s area) - Supramarginal Gyrus (SMG) - phonological processing and phonological working memory, particularly in tasks involving rhyming, word repetition, and phoneme segmentation - Also motor areas for speech – Precentral Gyrus and Motor Cortices Dual-Route Model of Reading – how the brain processes written words and converts them into meaningful language - Lexical – written words recognized as visual word form - Associate with surface dyslexia – can't read pseudowords - Non Lexical – graphemes converted into phonemes recognize as auditori word form - Associated with deep dyslexia – reading syllable by syllabus ERPs of Language Comprehension - N400 – for semantic (relating to meaning in language or logic) anomalies - 400 Milliseconds after word is presented - Example – surprise world – she was wearing red SHOES - P600 – syntactic positive shift - When a grammar agreement occurs - higher-level syntactic processing, including reanalysis, restructuring, and integration of sentence elements. - Example – “She was going home” → “She going home” violates subject-verb agreement - Left Anterior Negativity – when wrong part of speech occurs – syntactic error detection - 200-500 ms after the onset of a syntactic anomaly or violation. - Example – She go to the store" instead of "She goes to the store Dual Systems of Cognition/Decision Making - ‘Hot’ – automatic/context dependent – emotionally guided - Limbic circuitry – ventral striatum, OFC, vmPFC - ‘Cold’ – controlled/evidence based – rational and deliberate - Executive function circuitry – latPFC, dACC, PPC Alexia w/o Agraphia - Can write (agraphia – inability to write) but can't read - Damage to visual word form area (LH posterior temporal cortex) Theory of Mind, Mentalization - Theory of Mind – Cognitive ability to represent the information in the minds of others distinguishing them from what we know  - Mentalization – Thinking about one's mind and the minds of others - Perceiving and interpreting human behaviors in terms of intentional mental states - goals/desire/feelings/beliefs Mindblindness – Inability to recognize social goals, intent, and beliefs of others - Autistic people tend to have mindblindness Role of RH Temporal Parietal Junction in social cog - implicated in a wide range of social cognitive functions, such as Theory of Mind (ToM), perspective-taking, and understanding social intentions - located at the intersection of the temporal and parietal lobes, where the superior temporal sulcus (STS), angular gyrus, and intraparietal sulcus (IPS) converge - Medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC): Involved in self-referential thinking and understanding others’ perspectives. - Posterior superior temporal sulcus (pSTS): Engaged in processing social cues such as gaze direction, emotional expressions, and biological motion. - Amygdala: Involved in emotional processing and evaluating the emotional significance of social information. Orbitofrontal damage & social cognition – ventral prefrontal cortex, plays a key role in decision-making, emotional regulation, and processing reward-related information (Phineas Gage case study) - Impaired social decision making - Can't read social cues - Impulsive behavior - Emotional regulation and empathy - Moral judgment - Impaired Theory of Mind Rule switching & Prefrontal cortex - Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) – executive functions, including working memory, cognitive flexibility, and planning - Inhibitory control—a function supported by the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) and anterior cingulate cortex (ACC)—is needed to override previously established rules or actions that no longer apply when switching between tasks. - vmPFC – reward consequences of switching between rules or strategies. It helps integrate emotion and value information in decision-making - ACC – involved in error detection, conflict monitoring, and adjusting behavior - OFC helps with evaluating rewards and punishments based on new rules Inhibitory Control of Action - ACC and vmPFC – right inferior PFC - Stop signal – a person's impulse control  - Basal ganglia, specifically the subthalamic nucleus (STN), is involved in motor control and action inhibition Stroop Effect – Word reading is automatic and can interfere (or aid) in color naming tasks, which is more novel and less practice - Two cognitive processes going on at once Anterior Cingulate Cortex Function – Plays a role in emotion regulation and conflict monitoring during social interactions. Role of Dopamine in Valuation/Reward, VTA, RPE - Dopamine is a reward signal - Found in substantia nigra and ventral tegmental area - Dopamine is released when there is an unexpected reward and no change when reward is expected Marshmallow Test expts - Delayed Gratification - fMRI revealed ventral striatum exaggerate recruitment in low delayers → meaning high false alarm rates Ventral-Dorsal, Anterior-Posterior, Medial-Lateral, and Rostral-Caudal directions Resolution & Field of View in recording methods - Resolution – smallest different that can be observed - Field of View – total extent of observations Functional role of ventral striatum - reward processing, motivation, decision-making, and goal-directed behavior - Nucleus Accumbens (NAc) – The NAc is considered the central part of the ventral striatum and is heavily involved in reward processing and motivation. - Ventral Part of the Putamen –plays a role in the ventral striatum’s functions, particularly in reward and motivation. Implicit Bias and the IAT - Unconscious stereotyping - Tested using reaction time for race, gender, sex, religion etc. - Correlation with amygdala – fast/automatic emotional response to “outgroup” shows bias - Individuals with greater implicit bias tend to employ cognitive control over response (using dorsolateral PFC) - People who will regulate diplock bias exhibit larger ERN Anomia – losing ability to name certain objects (hammer woman example) - associated with damage to the left hemisphere, especially areas like the posterior temporal lobe, parietal lobe, and inferior frontal gyrus, which are involved in word retrieval, semantic processing, and language production. Remote vs. Recent LTM retrieval – role of hippocampus - hippocampus is critically involved in the retrieval of recent memories (those formed within a short time frame, typically hours to days ago). - Newer memories are more vulnerable to loss (Ribot's Law) - Older memories are more stable due to consolidation