Exam Preparation-1 PDF

1 - Accessibility & Mobility  1 - Accessibility & Mobility (Week 2) Accessibility: ○ In terms of potential (opportunities that could be reached) or in terms of activity (opportunities that are reached) # of opportunities available per l...

1 - Accessibility & Mobility  1 - Accessibility & Mobility (Week 2) Accessibility: ○ In terms of potential (opportunities that could be reached) or in terms of activity (opportunities that are reached) # of opportunities available per location / person The 2 Core Concepts 1. Location - in relation to surrounding transport infrastructure 2. Separation - associated with connectivity between places (based on some measure) Eg. distance, time, generalised cost The 4 Key Components 1. Land-use Component ○ Amount, quality, + spatial distribution of land-use activities Demand for opportunities 2. Transportation Component ○ Time, cost, effort ○ Transportation system = a disutility or disincentive Disutility results from imbalance between supply (location) - demand (volume of passengers) 3. Temporal Component ○ Availability of services at different times (of day) 4. Individual Component ○ Reflects needs of specific individuals (Age, income, education, physical cond.) Demand & Distance Types Need for transport results from derived demand ○ Direct Derived Demand - Movements that are directly the outcome of economic, educational, social activities Eg. commuting ○ Indirect Derived Demand - Movements created by the requirements of other movements Eg. going to the petrol station to fill up your car / going to the bus stop The Links Between Land-Use & Transport The links between land-use and transport  ○ Physical relationship - density Economic relationship - land prices / rent levels Social relationship - equity and distribution factors Environmental relationships - quality of life Relationship under shifting circumstances ○ Land-use characteristics - space ○ Demand characteristics - time ○ Market-value characteristics - state Accessibility Measures Infrastructure-based ○ Analyse observed / simulated performance of service level of infrastructure Eg. congestion, avg. travel speeds Location-based ○ Analyse level of accessibility to spatially distributed activities Eg. # of jobs within 30 minute bus ride Person-based  ○ Analyse accessibility at individual level Eg. activities individual can participate in Utility-based ○ Analyse economic benefits of access to spatially distributed activities 2 - Transport & Environment  2 - Transport & Environment (Week 5?) Relationship between 2 ○ Likely going to get a question on this Impact of transport on environment ○ Likely to get a question of this ○ Land-use Likely to get question on this ○ Emissions The Relationship Between Transport & The Environment Transport-Environment Link ○ Multi-dimensional relationship The Relationship Between Transport & Emissions  ○ Road transport contributes ⅕ of total EU carbon emissions  ○ Carbon monoxide (-87%) ○ Sulphur oxide (-66%) ○ Nitrogen oxides (-40%) Emissions from road transport has not declined as much as anticipated ○ In last 20 years ○ 2030 targets will probably not be reached ○ Emissions of air pollutants decreased for all modes of transport since 1990 The Noise-Health Relationship 65m people in EU exposed to above normal levels ○ 1 in 3 during day ○ 1 in 5 during night Stressors include: ○ Sleep disturbance ○ Annoyance ○ Heart disease ○ Cognitive outcomes  Origins of noise pollution ○ In Dublin ○ The Dublin Transport Initiative (1999) DTI Commissioned 1998 by Minister for the Env.  2 Phases ○ Phase 1: Looked at changes in transport in Dublin region since completion of Dublin Transport Strategy (DTS) ○ Phase 2: Developing long-term strategy for development of transport in Dublin region Recommended strategy - Roads ○ Completion of C-ring motorway ○ Improvement of radial links But only beyond C-ring ○ Few improvements / new provision inside C-ring Except for Port Tunnel ○ Traffic calming measures Including HGV management measures Recommended strategy - Public Transport ○ Development of 11 QBCs High frequency services Priority signalling High-quality waiting areas Real-time arrival info ○ Extension of DART line to Malahide + Greystones Capacity improvement on Maynooth line ○ Development of 3 Light Rail Transit (LUAS) routes from centre to: Cabinteely Tallaght Ballymun  ○ Development of park-and-ride facilities at strategic periphery locations to encourage long-distance trips using public transport ○ Establishment of Dublin Transit/Transport Office (DTO) with statutory powers to ensure implementation DTI ○ €1.28 billion for implementation strat 47% on roads 43% on public transport 10% on management ○ In comparison, DTS (previous strat): 86% for roads Successor Programmes / Strategies Strategic Planning Guidelines for the Greater Dublin Area (1999)  ○ ○ Development around established settlement centres Move away from New Town ideology ○ Mixed-use development to support public transport provision Reduce stress on PT infrastructure ○ ↓ in travel demand and ↑ in use of PT Regional Planning Guidelines for the Greater Dublin Area (2004)  ○ ○ Similar to SPGGDA (1999) ↑ emphasis on sustainable development ○ Embraced polycentric-city ideology for first time ○ Development along high-quality transport corridors Transport 21 ‘Plan’ (2005) ○ Emphasis on the rail network ○ Emphasis on other cities in Ireland Smarter Travel - A Sustainable Transport Future (2009) ○ Reduce travel demand ○ Maximise network efficiency  ○ Reduce reliance on fossil fuels ○ Walking + cycling to increase to 55% of modal share Greater Dublin Area (GDA) Transport Strategy (2016 - 2035) ○ Statutory document Other agencies MUST have regard to this strategy ○ Max 45% of commuting by car (2035) Drop from 65% GDA Transport Strategy (2022 - 2042) ○ Update on previous strategy 3 - Sustainable Transport  3 - Sustainable Transport (Week 6) Definition ○ “Capacity to support mobility needs of people, freight, and information in least damageable mean” Promotes linkages between: Environmental protection Economic efficiency Social progress The SDGs SDG 9 - Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure ○ Target 9.1 - Develop quality, reliable, sustainable, and resilient infrastructure SDG 11 - Sustainable Cities & Communities ○ Target 11.2 - By 2030 provide access to safe, affordable, accessible and sustainable transport systems for all 11.2.1 - Proportion of pop. that has convenient access to public transport Indirectly related: ○ SDG 3 - Good Health & Well-being ○ SDG 7 - Affordable & Clean Energy ○ SDG 8 - Decent Work & Economic Growth ○ SDG 12 - Responsible Consumption & Production ○ SDG 13 - Climate Action Technology & The Future Avg. CO2 emissions from cars (graph)  ○ Technology rapidly improving Real change in transport prices ○ World automobile prod. World Automobile Production (2000 - 2023)  ○ World Bicycle + Passenger Car Production (1950 - 2007) ○ Road passengers  ○ Dutch ABC Land-use and Transport Policy (1989) Dutch definition of planning: ○ “The search for and the establishment of the best possible mutual adaptation of space and society for the benefit of society” Significant emphasis on efficiency 3 Tier System: ○ 1 National Authority ○ 12 Provincial Authorities ○ 560 Municipal Authorities ABC Concept has 3 Strands: ○ 1. Location policy that keeps trip-distances to minimum ○ 2. ↑ facilities / amenities te ensure slower car-based traffic + faster PT ○ 3. Promotion of PT through stricter parking policies Classification ○ ABC policy classifies urban areas according to conditions of transport ○ “Accessibility Profiles” + “Mobility Profiles” Accessibility Profile - accessibility of a location by PT / car Mobility Profile - land-use activities indicate potential for PT use by residential area, employees, and / or visitors And level of dependence of car usage to carry-out activities ○ ○ ○ 4 - International / National TP Trends 4 - International / National TP Trends & Challenges (Also Week 4?) Theory of urban form / organisation ○ Monocentric, polycentric etc. ○ Point-to-point, hub-and-spoke etc. Trip Patterns and Models Schematic representation of trip patterns within a metropolitan area  ○ Monocentric Model  ○ Assumes CBD house majority of employment opportunities Assumes individuals value accessibility to employment locations Bid more on rent to reduce commuter cost (in time and money) Travel patterns typically on radial routes (to and from) CBD Easy to implement public transport The Polycentric Model: The urban village version ○  Assumes that self-sufficient communities exist around CBD In theory, these ‘urban villages’ aggregate to form large polycentric metropolis Trips are short due to individuals living and working in same sub-centre Travel demand between sub-centres = ↓ Very idealistic Not entirely realised The Polycentric Model: The random movement version ○ Assumes CBD + sub-centres attract from all over city Leading to weakening of CBD Highly dispersed and complex travel pattern Provision of transport almost impossible The Mono-polycentric Model:Simultaneous radial and random movement  ○ Strong CBD + strong sub-centres Strong flows between employment sub-centres and the CBD Weak flows between sub-centres There is scope to provide high-quality public transport along main radial routes Car still dominates, however Also significant # of inter-suburban and cross-city trips Point-to-Point vs. Hub-and-Spoke ○ Point-to-point requires more transport infrastructure and resources  Density and Spatial Structure ○ Density = trip length ↑ = ↓ (vice versa) 5 - Transport & Urban Spatial Organisation 5 - Transport & Urban Spatial Organisation and Commuting (Week 4) Density Examples Moscow  ○ Negative density profile Because of communism (not a market economy) Johannesburg ○ Negative density profile Apartheid Atlanta vs. Barcelona  ○ Ireland’s Transport Strategy in the 1970s 1. A motorway system linking developing areas and to distribute traffic coming into the region ○ A. a system of collector + distributor roads 2. An east river crossing bypassing the city 3. Removal of HGVs (trucks) from the city centre by providing new access to the port 4. Improving + expanding bus + rail services to centre ○ A. High-speed bus on radial routes 5. Expand parking meter area to increase accessibility of city centre to shoppers + business people 6 - Urban Transportation Planning Process  6 - Urban Transportation Planning Process (UTPP) (Week 7) Urban Transportation Planning Process (UTPP) ○ Objectives: Provide guidance for development of transport-planning proposals Evaluate alternative transport planning policies Inform allocation of priorities for future investment + development The 3 Major Stages 3 Major Stages ○ 1. Inventory Existing travel patterns, socio-economic characteristics of users, existing travel facilities + land-uses ○ 2. Forecasts Land-uses for forecast period Anticipated travel demand and its geography ○ 3. Alternatives / Evaluations Of different transport and land-use options 3 Functions of Model ○ 1. Description - using model to evaluate current situation ○ 2. Prediction - using model to estimate changes in performance of transport system ○ 3. Forecasting - using the model to estimate transportation system performance for a specified time in the future The 4 Stage Model  The 4 Stage Model ○ The 4 Sub-Models ○ Trip Generation Sub-Model - factors influencing trip generation Trip Distribution Sub-Model - calculate # of trips between 1 zone and another Based on trip generation rates in specific zones  Modal Split Sub-Model - proportional division of total # of person trips between different methods / modes of transport Traffic Assignment Sub-Model - choice of routes within transport network 7 - Transport & Airport Planning  7 - Transport & Airport Planning (Week 10) The Airport Interchange - 1 intervention to sustain 3 ambitions ○ Airports as Hubs The Airport Corridor ○ Concept of Airport City pursued intensely in Europe ○ Types of Airport Cities:  1. Mixed Airport City - single conurbation of city and airport 2. Isolated Airport City - eg. Stockholm, Munich 3. City-Oriented Airport City - newly-built districts close to airport  4. Integrated Airport City - eg. Vienna 5. Global-Urban Airport City - eg. Frankfurt, Schiphol Frankfurt’s Airport Gateway Garden ○ Schipol’s Airport Gateway Garden  ○ Economic Impacts of Airports ○ Indirect + induced influences from airports ‘Multiplier effect’ Indirect - economic activity as result of airport operation Jobs created by airport  Induced - spending of employees directly / indirectly employed by airport The 3 Main Levels of Airport Planning Moving ↑ in scale 1. Airport System Planning ○ Needs to meet immediate + future needs of pop. ○ Plan incl. timing + estimated costs of development 2. Airport Master Planning ○ Ultimate development of an airport ○ Includes entire airport area Aviation + non-aviation uses of land adjacent to airport ○ Overall objective of airport master plan to provide guidelines for future development Which will satisfy aviation demand 3. Airport Project Planning ○ Detailed planning Specific elements 8 - Policy Solutions for Transport  8 - Policy Solutions for Transport (Week 9) Considerations When considering solutions, consider what drives demand ○ Few journeys are for sake of journey ○ Length + mode strongly influenced by land-use + spatial planning policies Proximity of public transport facilities a factor As well as convenience And perceived safety ○ Land-use + spatial planning policy used to control patterns of land use And therefore transport demand Behavioural Changes Behavioural change measures can be effective ○ Eg. info on travel alternatives, encouraging lift sharing etc. ○ Education of public important ○ Most shift to bikes has been from pedestrians NOT drivers Negative shift Driver and Fleet behaviour ○ Driver behaviour single largest determinant of emissions / fuel use Eco-mode can help Braking system Regenerative energy ○ Fleet retrofitting Shared modes / Public cycling schemes ○ Growing # of modes which are in between public + private ○ Public bike schemes  Strong growth in recent years Address 3 barriers to cycling: Theft Home storage Maintenance Bike-share trips replace public transport use more than any other mode 7 - 13% replaced car, motorbike or taxi trips Pricing & Access Control Pricing measures ○ Should encourage change of modes which minimise neg. social + env. impacts Negative externalities ○ ‘Polluter pays’ principal Internalising prices Significant portion are ‘fixed’ (annually) Ensures negative externality is paid by polluter Can incentivise car use “What’s the point of paying it and not using the car” ○ Cities understand benefits of encouraging public transport use Do not expect to break even on revenues from tickets ○ Price + availability of parking Strongly influences travel choice Land currently used for parking can be changed Pricing parking more = more economically efficient land-use Access control & management ○ Range of traffic management controls affect vehicle flow Can reduce emissions ○ Key mechanisms are: Vehicle restricted areas Low Emission Zones (LEZ) Parking management Vehicle Restricted Areas Widely used in Europe Actively regulate vehicle activity ○ Can include vehicle weight or emissions Used to avoid unnecessary trips or congestion Most targeted at freight Improve air quality Important to consider needs of pop. within area ○ Disabled + elderly people Low Emission Zones (LEZ) Specific types of vehicles banned ○ Based on emission criteria Can be a ban or charges Most famous LEZs: ○ London ○ Berlin ○ Amsterdam ○ Stockholm Parking Management Up to 50% of congestion caused by drivers looking for parking  Priority parking ○ Can encourage less-pollution Exam Information Exam Dec. 9th ○ 9.30am - 11.30am Bring ID 5 Questions, answer 3 ○ 40 mins per question Tips: ○ Evidence of additional reading Reference literature Expected ○ Past exam papers Brightspace Sisweb ○ Case studies / examples welcome When opportunity arrives Additional Reading  Additional Readings 4 - Urban-Spatial Organisation & Commuting Urban spatial location advantage: The dual of the transportation problem and its implications for land-use and transport planning Enda Murphy (2012) Key concepts: ○ Job-Housing Balance Proximity to jobs + housing affects commuting patterns ○ Excess Commuting Measures inefficiencies in commuting arising from urban layouts ○ Shadow Prices Used to evaluate relative locational advantages / disadvantages in urban areas based on transport costs Findings in Dublin: ○ Urban structure shift from monocentric to decentralised employment + residential areas ○ Private transport users adapted faster than PT users Policy Implications: ○ Target Decentralisation Align jobs + housing developments to reduce commuting inefficiencies ○ Public Transport Realignment Adjust services to reflect off-peak + decentralised commuting patterns Pastpapers  Pastpapers 2018/19 Semester 2: file:///C:/Users/scost/Downloads/85151_PLAN30010.pdf 1. Discuss the impacts of transportation on the environment. Outline how transport policies can be employed to mitigate these impacts 2. Discuss the concepts of ‘accessibility’ and ‘mobility’ in transportation planning. In your answer, outline how the two concepts are utilised in transportation planning practice. 3. Discuss and critically evaluate the characteristics of the Dutch ABC Land Use and Transport Policy. 4. Discuss and critically evaluate the relationship between land use and transportation within the context of Bertaud’s four models of urban spatial organisation. 5. Write an essay on the four-stage transport model and its relevance for the urban transportation planning process. 2019/20 Trimester 1: file:///C:/Users/scost/Downloads/87123_PLAN30010.pdf 1. Discuss the range of impacts of transportation on the environment. Outline how these impacts can be addressed through transport policy. 2. Critically discuss the importance of sustainable transportation for addressing current and future planning and environmental challenges. 3. Discuss and critically evaluate the characteristics of the Dutch ABC Land Use and Transport Policy. 4. Discuss the relationship between land use and transportation within the context of the four models of urban spatial organisation discussed in class. 5. Explain the four-stage transport model and discuss its relevance in the urban transportation planning process. 2018/19 Semester 1: file:///C:/Users/scost/Downloads/83888_PLAN30010.pdf  1. Discuss the scope of the impacts of transportation on the environment. Outline potential mitigation measures for addressing these impacts. 2. Critically evaluate the importance of sustainable transportation, and its monitoring through indicators, for addressing global transportation challenges. 3. 3. Discuss and critically evaluate the characteristics of the Dutch ABC Land Use and Transport Policy. 4. 4. Discuss the four models of urban spatial organisation investigated in class. Justify which model is most appropriate for describing the existing spatial organisation of the Dublin region. 5. 5. Provide a critical review of the four-stage transport model in the urban transportation planning process. Impacts of Transport on the Environment Relationship between transport and the environment ○ Multi-dimensional relationship Transport system must meet increasing mobility demands for passengers + freight Leading to congestion and emissions  Transport infrastructure is also leading to more land-use conflicts and green site usage Relationship between transport and emissions ○ Road transport contributes ⅕ of total EU carbon emissions This increase is due to an increase in population as well as an increase in income in the population Greenhouse gas emissions somewhat leveling out We will not reach 2030 targets However we have significantly limited other GHG emissions ○ 23% of GHG emissions in EU  The noise-health relationship ○ 65m people in EU exposed to above normal levels Transport Policies to Address Impacts The main goal is to reduce the impact of transport on the environment ○ This can be done through a multifaceted approach combining: Technology Policy Behavioural changes ○ These changes employ the use of both “nudge” and “shove” tactics to encourage, and sometimes force, a modal shift toward more sustainable transport options Behavioural changes ○ “Nudge tactics” to encourage uptake in more sustainable modes of transport: Education of public Easily accessible real-time information on travel alternatives Affecting driving behaviour Single largest determinant of fuel use Eco-modes Regenerative braking  Shared modes / public biking schemes Bike-sharing replaces PT use more than any other mode ○ 7 - 13% replaced car, motorbike or taxi trips Defaulting to public transport passes in workplace benefits packages. Policy changes ○ “Shove tactics” to force uptake in sustainable modes: Pricing measures ‘Polluter pays principle’ Price + availability of parking Access control & management Vehicle restricted areas ○ Active regulation ○ Mostly targeting freight Low Emission Zones (LEZ) ○ Specific vehicles banned / additional charges Parking management ○ Dynamic pricing ○ Priority parking ○ Restricting supply The Concepts of ‘Mobility’ and ‘Accessibility’ Accessibility ○ In terms of potential (opportunities that could be reached) or in terms of activity (opportunities that are reached) # of opportunities available per location / person The 2 Core Concepts ○ Location - in relation to surrounding transport infrastructure ○ Separation - associated with connectivity between places (based on some measure)  Eg. distance, time, generalised cost Dutch Classifications: ○ Accessibility - accessibility of a location by PT / car ○ Mobility Profile - land-use activities indicate potential for PT use by residential area, employees, and / or visitors And level of dependence of car usage to carry-out activities ○ Accessibility is outcome-based (how easy is it for an individual to reach their destination) Mobility is process-focused (how efficiently can an individual move through the system) The Different Measures of Accessibility ○ Infrastructure-based Analyse observed / simulated performance of service level of infrastructure Eg. congestion, avg. travel speeds ○ Location-based Analyse level of accessibility to spatially distributed activities Eg. # of jobs within 30 minute bus ride  ○ Person-based Analyse accessibility at individual level Eg. activities individual can participate in ○ Utility-based Analyse economic benefits of access to spatially distributed activities How are ‘Accessibility’ and ‘Mobility’ used in Planning Effective sustainable transport hinges on the access to a choice of sustainable, affordable, reliable and efficient modes Accessibility ○ Emphasises the integration of transport links with land-use activities Reducing: Time Cost Effort ○ Encouraging mixed-use development Outlined in E. Murphy’s 2012 research findings ○ Expand PT networks, especially to underserved areas ○ Ensure accessibility for disadvantaged groups ○ First & Final-mile solutions Mobility ○ Improves ease of travel through a transport system ○ Improving bus lane and bike lane infrastructure ○ Traffic management systems to improve flow  ○ Improve infrastructure for multi-modal usage Such as bike paths Bike storage Bus lanes Improved pedestrian areas The Dutch ABC Land-Use and Transport Policy Created in 1989 3-Tier System ○ 1 National Authority ○ 12 Provincial Authorities ○ 560 Municipal Authorities ABC Concept has 3 Strands: ○ 1. Location policy that keeps trip-distances to minimum ○ 2. ↑ facilities / amenities te ensure slower car-based traffic + faster PT ○ 3. Promotion of PT through stricter parking policies Process involved classifying land-use activities into 3 categories based on “accessibility” and “mobility” profiles ○ Accessibility Profile - accessibility of a location by PT / car ○ Mobility Profile - land-use activities indicate potential for PT use by residential area, employees, and / or visitors And level of dependence of car usage to carry-out activities And level of road-freight dependence (for businesses)  ○ They would then combine these profiles to categorise land-use activities ○ This allowed local and regional governments to have aligned zoning policies Parking standards and supply were stricter in A locations ○ PT infrastructure investment was prioritised for B and C locations The ABC land-use and transport policy altered the relationship between land-use and transport consequently influencing the urban grain to maximise sustainable transport usage. ○ This led to a reduction in car use in urban areas ○ And an increased usage of sustainable modes as a form of commuting ○ However, C locations continued to grow, partially due to the growth of the middle-class around this time and the shift of businesses toward the urban periphery for space and logistical reasons Relationship of Land-Use and Transport There are four factors that influence the relationship between land-use and transport: ○ Physical relationship - density High-density areas reduce reliance on cars Low-density areas increase reliance on cars Economic relationship - land prices / rent levels Encourage businesses and families to move to suburbs Land-value around transport hubs tends to rise (transit-oriented development) Social relationship - equity and distribution factors Distribution of wealth and equity through the accessibility of PT ○ Bridging the gap between car owners and non-car owners Environmental relationships - quality of life Improves air quality High-density development can preserve green space Enhances quality of life Bertaud’s Four Models of Urban Spatial Organisation Schematic representation of trip patterns within a metropolitan area  ○ Monocentric Model ○ Travel patterns typically on radial routes (to and from) CBD Hub-and-spoke ○ Easy to implement public transport  Polycentric Model: Urban Village Version ○ Trips are short due to individuals living and working in same sub-centre ○ Travel demand between sub-centres = ↓ ○ Very idealistic Not entirely realised Polycentric Model: Random Movement Version ○ Highly dispersed and complex travel pattern ○ Provision of transport almost impossible The Mono-Polycentric Model:Simultaneous radial and random movement ○ There is scope to provide high-quality public transport along main radial routes Car still dominates, however ○ Also significant # of inter-suburban and cross-city trips The Four-Stage Transport Model Four-Stage Transport Model part of the Urban Transportation Planning Process (UTPP) ○ 1. Trip Generation a. Estimate # of trips originating + ending in different zones i. Including factors influencing trip generaiton 2. Trip Distribution a. Determine where trips in 1 zone are likely to end i. Gravity Model: Trip interactions are proportional to the population and activity at the origin and destination and inversely proportional to travel time or cost. ii. Growth Factor Model: Adjusts existing trip patterns based on expected growth in population or activity. 3. Modal Split a. Predict the mode of transport travelers will use for each trip (e.g., car, bus, train, bike, walk). 4. Traffic Assignment a. Determine the routes travelers will take for their trips, considering available infrastructure and congestion. i. All-or-Nothing Assignment: Assigns all trips to the shortest or least costly route. ii. Capacity-Restraint Assignment: Considers congestion by adjusting travel times based on traffic volumes. The four-stage model can be used to: ○ Evaluate the transport situation ○ Predict estimated changes in performance of the transport system ○ Forecast performance of transport system in the future  This can help with: ○ Improving the transport system structurally (design) ○ Assess the impacts of new projects (highways, metro lines, etc.) ○ Assess the impacts of policies (pricing, car restrictions (LEZ), land-use changes) Sustainable Transport Sustainable transport is a cornerstone in reducing climate change and its impacts Currently the transport sector emits around 23% of total greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) in the EU ○ Sustainable transport can drastically reduce emissions in this sector ○ It can also reduce dependence on unsustainable fuels Congestion and car dependence also lead to: ○ Loss of productivity (due to congestion) ○ Increase the disparity between income-groups ○ Decrease the availability of greenspaces ○ Increase the need for infrastructure (and associated costs) ○ And generally leads to increased monetary and time costs to users Even if they do not contribute to congestion / car dependency Indicators: ○ Areas with higher PT participation and accessibility tend to also have less income-disparities and increased social mobility If this is correlated is still up for debate Practice  Practice 1. Discuss the impacts of transportation on the environment. Outline how transport policies can be employed to mitigate these impacts There are multiple impacts of transport to the environment, mainly the large amount of emissions from the sector. ○ Transport emits around 20% of total greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) 2. Discuss the concepts of ‘accessibility’ and ‘mobility’ in transportation planning. In your answer, outline how the two concepts are utilised in transportation planning practice. 3. Discuss and critically evaluate the characteristics of the Dutch ABC Land Use and Transport Policy. 4. Discuss and critically evaluate the relationship between land use and transportation within the context of Bertaud’s four models of urban spatial organisation. 5. Write an essay on the four-stage transport model and its relevance for the urban transportation planning process.