Ethical Systems PDF

Summary of Key Ethical Systems Socrates: Virtue as knowledge, moral development through dialectical questioning. Plato: Virtue is harmony in the soul, modeled after the Forms. Ring of Gyges: Examines the corrupting power of unchecked freedom. Aristotle: Ethics based on eudaimonia, virtue as the G...

Summary of Key Ethical Systems Socrates: Virtue as knowledge, moral development through dialectical questioning. Plato: Virtue is harmony in the soul, modeled after the Forms. Ring of Gyges: Examines the corrupting power of unchecked freedom. Aristotle: Ethics based on eudaimonia, virtue as the Golden Mean, moral development through practice. Christian Ethics: Love (agape), forgiveness, and the Golden Rule as central moral principles. Kant: Duty-based ethics, categorical imperatives, universalizability. Bentham & Mill: Utilitarianism, maximizing happiness, felicific calculus, and higher/lower pleasures. Machiavelli: Political realism, the ends justify the means, maintaining power at any cost. Socrates and Virtue Ethics Core Idea: Socrates is often considered the founder of Western moral philosophy. His ethical position centres on the idea that virtue is knowledge. Key Points: Virtue is Knowledge: Socrates believed that to know what is truly good is to do what is good. Ignorance leads to wrongdoing. The Socratic Method: Socrates used dialectical questioning (the "Socratic Method") to examine moral concepts, helping others recognize their ignorance and guiding them toward virtuous understanding. So virtue is arrived at communally through logical discussion Virtue as the Highest Good: Virtue, for Socrates, was the highest good and the key to human flourishing. The virtuous person knows how to live well, aligning their life with moral truths. Plato and Ethics and Virtue Core Idea: Plato, a student of Socrates, developed his ethical theory based on his theory of Forms. Key Points: The Theory of Forms: Plato believed that moral virtues, like justice and goodness, exist as perfect, abstract Forms. These Forms are the ultimate reality, while our experiences are mere imperfect copies. The Tripartite Soul: According to Plato, the soul has three parts: rational (reason), spirited (will/emotions), and appetitive (desires). Virtue is achieved when the rational part governs the other two. Allegory of the Charioteer learn this and explain it. THREE parts of charioteer, white horse, black horse The Ideal State and Justice: In The Republic, Plato argues that the ideal state mirrors the just individual. The just society is one in which each class (rulers, soldiers, and producers) performs its own role, and justice exists when everyone fulfills their proper function. Virtue is Harmony: A virtuous person maintains harmony between the soul's three parts, with reason ruling over spirit and appetite. The Ring of Gyges (Plato) Core Idea: This is a story from Plato's Republic that explores the corrupting influence of power. Key Points: The Ring of Gyges: The story tells of a shepherd, Gyges, who discovers a ring that grants him the power to become invisible. Gyges uses this power to commit unjust acts, including murder and taking the throne. Moral Question: The story poses the question of whether a person would act justly if they could do anything without fear of being caught. Plato uses this to explore whether people are just because of fear of punishment, or if they are truly virtuous. Aristotle: Nicomachean Ethics Core Idea: Aristotle’s ethical theory is centered on the concept of eudaimonia, often translated as "flourishing" or "well-being." Key Points: Eudaimonia (Flourishing): The ultimate goal of human life is eudaimonia, which is achieved through living a life of rational activity in accordance with virtue. Virtue as a Habit: For Aristotle, virtue is not an innate quality but a habit that is developed through practice. Virtue lies between extremes (the Doctrine of the Mean). The Golden Mean: Virtue is the balance between deficiency and excess. For example, courage is the mean between cowardice (deficiency) and recklessness (excess). Ethical Virtue vs. Intellectual Virtue: Ethical virtues (like courage and generosity) regulate emotions and actions, while intellectual virtues (like wisdom and understanding) guide reason. The Golden Mean (Aristotle) Core Idea: The Golden Mean is Aristotle’s principle that moral virtue lies between extremes. Key Points: Doctrine of the Mean: Each virtue is the balanced middle ground between two vices: one of deficiency and one of excess. For example, generosity is the mean between prodigality (excessive generosity) and stinginess (insufficient generosity). Context-Dependent: The "mean" is not an exact midpoint but is context- dependent, based on the circumstances and the individual. Make sure you have some examples Imitation of Virtue (Aristotle) Core Idea: Virtue is learned by imitating virtuous role models. Key Points: Role of Role Models: Aristotle emphasizes the importance of emulating virtuous people, as we learn virtue through practice and by observing others who embody it. Moral Development: Through repeated practice and the imitation of virtuous individuals, a person becomes virtuous over time.  Christian Ethics Core Idea: Christian ethics is grounded in the teachings of Jesus Christ and the moral principles found in Christian doctrine. Key Points: Love and Charity: The central moral imperative is love—love for God and love for others (Matthew 22:37-40). Charity (agape) is the highest expression of love. The Sermon on the Mount: Jesus’ teachings on loving one's enemies, turning the other cheek, and forgiving others form the basis of Christian ethics. Grace and Salvation: Christian ethics emphasizes that humans are incapable of achieving salvation through works alone, but rely on God's grace. Golden Rule: "Do unto others as you would have them do unto you" (Matthew 7:12) encapsulates Christian ethical teaching. Kant: Deontology Core Idea: Immanuel Kant's ethical theory is based on duty, emphasizing moral rules and the intrinsic worth of human beings. Key Points: Deontological Ethics: Kant's ethics focus on the morality of actions based on whether they follow a universal moral rule, regardless of consequences. Categorical Imperative: The central principle of Kantian ethics, which states that one should act only according to maxims that can be consistently universalized (i.e., that could be willed as a law for everyone). Universalizability: An action is morally right if the rule guiding the action can be consistently applied to everyone in similar circumstances without contradiction. Respect for Persons: Kant stresses that people should never be treated as mere means to an end, but always as ends in themselves (the "Formula of Humanity"). Criticisms – what do we do when we have TWO conflicting moral duties? How do we resolve the situation? For example, the killer at the door. What are the conflicting moral duties that we are faced with? Bentham: Utilitarianism and Consequentialism Core Idea: Jeremy Bentham is the founder of classical utilitarianism, which focuses on the consequences of actions. Key Points: The Principle of Utility: The rightness or wrongness of an action depends on its outcome, specifically whether it produces the greatest happiness for the greatest number. Felicific Calculus: Bentham proposed a method for quantifying happiness and measuring the pleasure and pain produced by an action to determine its moral worth. Consequentialism: The ethical theory that judges actions solely by their consequences, rather than by their adherence to rules or intentions. The greatest happiness is the greatest good. OK – but what about  Mill: Utilitarianism and Consequentialism Core Idea: John Stuart Mill expanded on Bentham's utilitarianism, introducing the idea of qualitative differences in pleasures. Key Points: Higher and Lower Pleasures: Mill distinguishes between higher (intellectual and moral) pleasures and lower (bodily) pleasures. The pursuit of higher pleasures leads to a more fulfilling and morally valuable life. Greatest Happiness Principle: Like Bentham, Mill advocates for actions that maximize happiness, but emphasizes the importance of the quality of pleasures. Utilitarianism as a Social Ethics: Mill applied utilitarianism not just to individual actions but also to social and political institutions, advocating for policies that promote the greatest good for society. Learn some critiques of the system 1. The "Calculus Problem" (Practicality of Calculating Happiness) Problem: Utilitarianism, particularly Bentham's version, proposes the "felicific calculus," which suggests we can measure and quantify happiness to determine the right course of action. Critique: It’s impractical to calculate the exact consequences of each action on everyone, as happiness is subjective and varies between individuals. This makes it difficult, if not impossible, to compare happiness across people. 2. Justice and Rights Concerns Problem: Utilitarianism prioritizes outcomes, which can lead to violating individual rights or justice for the sake of greater overall happiness. Critique: Critics argue that utilitarianism can justify unjust actions, such as sacrificing an innocent person for the greater good (e.g., the "trolley problem"). This can lead to violations of rights, such as those of minority groups, in favor of maximizing the majority's happiness. 3. The "Problem of Incommensurability" Problem: Utilitarianism assumes that all forms of happiness can be measured on the same scale, but not all pleasures are comparable. Critique: Different types of pleasures, such as intellectual vs. physical, are not easily reducible to a single metric of happiness. The theory oversimplifies complex human experiences by assuming they can be directly compared. 4. The "Demandingness Problem" Problem: Utilitarianism demands that individuals always act to maximize happiness, which can be excessively burdensome. Critique: Critics argue that constantly acting in ways that maximize utility—such as sacrificing personal happiness or donating all surplus income—can lead to moral burnout and prevent people from pursuing their own well-being or aspirations. 5. The"Tyranny of the Majority" very important one, the most famous Problem: Utilitarianism can lead to the oppression of minorities if their suffering is outweighed by the happiness of the majority. Critique: By focusing solely on aggregate happiness, utilitarianism might justify policies that harm minorities for the benefit of the majority, leading to injustices like discrimination or exclusion. 6. The "Moral Integrity" Critique Problem: Utilitarianism emphasizes the consequences of actions over the moral integrity of the decision-maker. Critique: Critics argue that utilitarianism undermines moral integrity by requiring individuals to act purely for the greater good, even if it means going against their own ethical principles (e.g., killing an innocent person to save others). 7. The "Uncertainty Problem" (Prediction of Consequences) Problem: Utilitarianism requires predicting the future consequences of actions, but these are often highly uncertain. Critique: The difficulty of accurately predicting all the consequences of an action —especially in complex systems—makes utilitarian calculations unreliable and prone to errors, which can lead to unforeseen negative outcomes. 8. The "No Rest Problem" (Utilitarianism's Continuous Demands) Problem: Utilitarianism’s focus on maximizing happiness requires continuous action, leaving no room for rest or personal fulfillment. Critique: Critics argue that this constant moral demand can be exhausting and prevents individuals from pursuing their own goals or enjoying leisure, which is essential for personal well-being. 9.The "Problem of False Happiness" (False Positives in Happiness) Problem: Utilitarianism can justify actions that create temporary or superficial happiness, which may not lead to true well-being. Critique: Critics argue that actions such as lying or manipulating to generate short-term happiness do not foster long-term flourishing, yet utilitarianism may deem them morally acceptable. 10. The "Over-Simplification of Human Motivation" Problem: Utilitarianism assumes that people are always motivated by a desire to maximize happiness or pleasure. Critique: This view oversimplifies human nature, ignoring the complexity of motivations such as duty, justice, love, and personal integrity. It reduces moral decision-making to mere calculations of pleasure and pain, missing deeper moral values. Machiavelli Core Idea: Niccolò Machiavelli is known for his political realism and pragmatic, often ruthless advice on power politics. Key Points: The Prince: Machiavelli's most famous work, The Prince, advises rulers on how to maintain power, emphasizing that the ends justify the means. Virtù: For Machiavelli, virtù (a concept distinct from Aristotle’s virtue) refers to the qualities that a ruler must have—such as strength, cunning, and decisiveness—to navigate the unpredictability of political life. The Ethics of Power: Machiavelli is often associated with the idea that moral norms can be disregarded in the pursuit of power. A prince should do whatever is necessary to secure and maintain control, even if it involves deceit or cruelty. Realpolitik: Machiavelli's ethics are rooted in the harsh realities of political life, where idealistic principles often clash with the necessity of maintaining order and power.