Mammal Anatomy PDF

Mammal Anatomy Basic unit of life is the CELL Tissues- ★​ Tissues are composed of cells with common structure and function ★​ Similar cells form tissues ★​ Organs are made up of tissues ★​ Organs are part of organ systems ○​ (like nervous/digestive system) Epithelial Tissue (e...

Mammal Anatomy Basic unit of life is the CELL Tissues- ★​ Tissues are composed of cells with common structure and function ★​ Similar cells form tissues ★​ Organs are made up of tissues ★​ Organs are part of organ systems ○​ (like nervous/digestive system) Epithelial Tissue (epithelium) ❖​ Arranged in continuous sheets of closely packed cells ❖​ Covers external body surfaces ​ Lines the body cavities ​ Found in many organs Connective Tissue ❖​ Connects organs, provides protection, provides support, fills spaces, produces blood cells, and stores fat ❖​ The cells are usually surrounded by a matrix of acellular material ❖​ Includes cartilage, bone, blood, fat cells, and other tissues Muscular Tissue ❖​ Composed of long cells called muscle fibers ❖​ Consists mostly of proteins ❖​ Includes skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle Nervous Tissue ❖​ Consists of neurons and glial cells ❖​ Glial cells have many support and service functions Posture- ​ Plantigrade- entire foot on the ground ○​ humans ​ Digitigrades- up on the digits ○​ Cats and dogs ​ Unguligrade- on the tips of the toes on hoofs ○​ Ungulates (horse, donkey) Antlers and Horns- Antlers- are branched and shed every year ​ Mature antlers are solid bone ​ Usually found in males only ​ Found in deer, elk, moose Horns- are not branched and are permanent ​ Consist of a sheath of keratin over bone ​ Both sexes have them Rhinoceros Horn- composed of hair like keratinized filaments Skin covered bone ossicones are found in giraffes Hair- ​ Hair is a key feature of the mammals ​ Hair grows out of hair follicles ​ Hair is composed of a tough protein called keratin Glands- Sweat Glands- only found in mammals ​ 2 types of sweat glands ○​ Eccrine ○​ Apocrine Eccrine Glands- secrete the watery sweat that is used for evaporative cooling Apocrine Glands- secrete a white or yellow sweat at puberty ​ Limited to armpits, pubic areas, breasts, and a few other areas Scent Glands- present in most mammals ​ Mammals use scent to attract the opposite sex, mark territories, communicate, warn others, and for defense (skunks) Sebaceous Glands- secrete a greasy substance called sebum ​ Oils the skin and hair ​ Keeps them pliable ​ Has antibacterial properties ​ Most are associated with hair follicles Mammary Glands- -Produce milk, -Unique to mammals, -Probably modified sweat glands Mammal Ecology Environment- Environment- everything an organism is exposed to Abiotic Components- weather, light, nutrients, and water Biotic Components- all the organisms that live in an organism's environment Population- Population- members of a particular species that live in the same area Community- all the populations living in a particular area Ecosystem- the abiotic factors and all living things in certain area Biosphere- global ecosystem Abiotic Factors in Environment: ​ Temperature ​ Water ​ Sunlight ​ Wind ​ Rocks and soil ​ Periodic Disturbances Biomes- a major ecosystem type Aquatic Biomes cover 75% of earth's surface ​ Oceanic, wetlands, and estuary Terrestrial Biomes cover 25% of the earth’s surface ​ The biome in this region is a temperate deciduous forest Density and Dispersion- Density- the number of indicvduals per unit of area Dispersion- the pattern of spacing of individuals in a population Factors Influencing Population Growth- Instraspecific Competition- competition within species Density Dependent Factors- competition for resources like food and places to love increases with increasing population density Density Independent Factors- includes weather, natural disasters Patterns of Dispersion- Clumped- individuals are arranged in clumps ​ Ex: termite colonies and schools of fish Uniform- even spacing of individual in a population ​ Ex: Seabird nesting colony Random- no pattern to distribution ​ Ex: distribution of trees in a tropical rain forest Carrying Capacity- Carrying Capacity- maximum stable population that an evniroment can support. ​ Some populations maintain an equilibrium near the carrying capacity (K- Selected), while other populations fluctuate wildly above and below the carrying capacity (R- Selected) Species diversity- The Species Diversity of a community includes: ​ Species Richness- number of species ​ Relative Abundance- of different species Interspecific Interactions- distributions of populations in a community is influenced by abiotic factors and interactions between species ​ Interactions between species affects evolution of the species Stability and Disturbances- Stability- constant state (equilibrium) a community may reach Disturbances- have major effects on communities Succession- (need to know the difference) Ecological Succesion- the replacement of species over time ​ Primary Succesion- begins in a lifeless area like a new volcanic island ​ Secondary Succession- begins after a disturbance such as lumbering off a forest Biogeography- study of the distribution of species and communities Trophic Levels- The species in an ecosystem are divided into trophic levels ​ Trophic levels are different feeding levels Primary Producers- base trophic level that supports all others ​ Usually photosynthetic organisms such as plants or phytoplankton Primary Consumers- next trophic level above primary producer ​ Herbivorous animals like bison and grasshoppers Secondary Consumers- next trophic level above primary consumer ​ Carnivores There will be tertiary and quaternary consumers as well The various trophic levels form a food chain Most ecosystems are quite complex and are called food webs Primary Productivity- Primary Productivity- the total amount of light energy converted into chemical energy in a certain time period Gross Producuitvy- total primary productivity Net Primary Productivity- equal to the gross primary productivity minus the energy used by the producer respiration (to survive) ​ 50-90% of gross primary productivity Secondary productivity- the rate consumers convert the chemical energy in their food into their own new biomass Behavioral Ecology- The study of animal behavior requires knowledge of it’s ecology Proximate Causes of Behavior- ​ Some questions about behavior will be how questions about proximate or mechanistic causes of behavior ○​ Ex: how do bats use their sonar, how do birds navigate Ultimate Causes of Behavior- ​ Some questions about behavior will be why questions about the ultimate or evolutionary causes of behavior ○​ Ex: why do birds migrate? How does migration effect their fitness? Fitness- Individuals act in such a way to increase their fitness. Fitness- ability to reproduce and produce offspring that will survive to reproduce themselves ​ Individuals behave selfishly, they behave in a way to maximize their fitness Primates- ​ Mostly arboreal (tree dwelling) ​ Have grasping hands and flexible limbs ​ Many have well developed brains ​ 5 digits, usually with nails, on forelimbs and hind limbs ​ Have binocular vision for depth perception 2 Groups of Primates (traditional classification) Suborder Prosimi- lemurs (including the aye aye) lorises, pottos, bush babies, and tarsiers (prosimians) ​ Nocturnal ​ Only found in the old world tropics Suborder Anthropoidea- monkeys, apes, and humans (monkeys and apes are known as simians) ​ Mostly diurnal (active during the day) ​ Have color vision ​ Divided into three groups ○​ New World Monkeys, Old World Monkeys, and Anthropoid Apes New world monkeys- ​ Found in South America ​ Includes spider monkeys, howler monkeys, squirrel monkeys Old world monkeys- ​ Found in Africa and Asia ​ Includes macaques, baboons, langurs, colobus monkeys, and others Differences btwn Old and New World Monkeys- ​ Many new world monkeys have a prehensile (grasping) tail, old world monkeys lack this ​ Old world monkeys have close set nostrils while new world monkeys have wide set nostrils ​ Old world monkeys have more opposable thumbs than new worl monkeys ​ Old world monkeys have more advanced teeth then new world monkeys Apes- ​ First appear in the fossil record about 22 million years ago ​ Living apes are gibbons, orangutans, chimps and gorillas ​ Apes have NO tails ​ Proportionallky longer arms then most monkeys ​ Larger brazins than monkeys Gibbons/Siamangs- ​ Less apes ​ Small, social, noisy ​ Move by brachiating, swinging by their long arms ​ Very agile ​ Live in SE Asia ​ Endangered Great Apes- ​ Orangutans, chimps, bonobos (pygmy chimps) and gorilla ​ large brained ​ Knuckle walkers ​ All are endangered Orangutans- ​ Large, red, arboreal apes from SE Asia ​ Solitary ​ Eat fruit ​ Long powerful arms to slowly mover through trees Gorillas- ​ Largest living apes  ​ Social, led by silverback male ​ 2 forms ○​ Lowland ○​ Mountain ​ Herbviores- they eat plants such as wild celery and nettles ​ Live in africa Chimpanzees- ​ Social intelligent and inquisitive ​ Tool users ​ Omnivores- eat leaves fruit uts termites ants honey birds eggs, bird and small mammals ​ Most aggressive apes ​ Live in african forests Bonobos/ Pygmy Chimps ​ Lighter build then chimps and have distinctly different behavior ​ Much less aggressiv than chimps- bonobos NEVER kill other bonobos ○​ They do hunt monekys on occasion ​ Tool users ​ Live in african forests Human Evolution- Humans have beoonged to a group of primates called hominins ​ Modern humans are the only living hominins ​ Upright bipedal posture freed up the hands to carry objects such as tools, food and young ​ Upright posture also important because it gives a better view of predators Ahelanthropus Tchadenis - oldest known hominin Relationship to later hominins is unknown Only known from a skull and some other fragments Ardipithecus Ramidus- “Ardi” Biped with a grasping foot like an ape Probably spent time in trees Relationship to later hominins= unknown Early Hominins Some experts do not consider the very early sahelanthropus, ardipithecus, and orrorin to be true hominins (mentioned above) You should know the names and characteristics of the various hominids discussed in class