ENVSOCTY Final Exam Notes PDF

ENVSOCTY 1HB3 -- Final Exam Notes WEEK 1: INTRO AND KEY CONCEPTS ------------------------------ **LEC 1: COURSE INTRO** **[Environment & Society:]** the study of the complex and reciprocal relationships between people (societies) and their natural (how climate change impacts people's activities), built (urban, suburban, rural environments), and socio-economic (networks of people and levels of development) environments - The ways different people inhabit the earth and how we impact the environments in which we live - Social dimensions of human environments and issues - Social and environmental challenges at various scales - Multidisciplinary perspectives to understand how societies and environments vary from place to place Geographers are interested in the links between environments and human societies **[Geography:]** the study of patterns and processes on the earth's surface; derived from Greek 'geo' (earth) and 'graphe' (to write about) **Two Branches of Geography:** 1. **[Physical geography]** a. Study of patterns and processes of the physical world b. Physical environments (e.g., landforms, climate, hydrology, geology ecology, etc.) 2. **[Human geography]** c. Study of patterns and processes of the human world d. Socio-Economic and Built environments (economy, culture, politics, behaviour, settlements, etc.) **[Geography:]** the study of patterns and processes on the earth's surface **[Human Geography]**: one of two branches of geography; the study of patterns and processes of the earth's human or social environments, including population change, economies, cultures, politics, settlements, and human interactions with the natural environment - Spatial distribution (patterns) of people, their cultures, economies, settlements, political/social structures, and behaviour - The processes that produce these spatial distributions - The importance of these distributions **[Charles Gritzner:]** Human Geography = what is WHERE (description of spatial distribution or organization (patterns) of wealthy countries), why THERE (explanation of processes that produced these spatial distributions), and why CARE (interpretation of the significance of these distributions)? **LEC 2: KEY CONCEPTS PT. 1** **Concepts: Space/Spatial** - **[Space]** = the areal extent of something - Measure of the amount of earth's surface something occupies 1. ***Absolute space*** a. Objective, physically real, has measurable boundaries b. Key for map-making, description & explanation of spatial distributions c. E.g., McMaster campus we can measure how much space it takes up 2. ***Relative space*** d. Subjective (perceptual), varies overtime e. E.g., apartment is cozy or cramped - **[Spatial]** = refers to space on earth's surface; synonymous with geographic **[Absolute space:]** mathematical projections; map using latitude and longitude **[Relative space:]** relative, not exact, positioning (e.g., topological map; sketch map) **Concepts: Location** - **[Location]** = refers to a particular [*position in space*,] a specific part of the earth's surface 1. ***Absolute (mathematical) location*** - uses a mathematical grid (latitude and longitude) a. E.g., 80W, 43N b. Unchanging 2. ***Relative (perceived) location*** -- subject to change based on interpretation c. E.g., 'location A is a short drive from downtown' 3. ***Nominal (toponym) location*** -- a place name; a location of significance is given a name d. E.g., 'Hamilton' named after a person e. Toponym: the common name given to a location; a place name **Concepts: Place** - **[Place:]** a location that has acquired a particular meaning or significance - Can be significant to an individual or to society collectively - E.g., childhood home, Church, etc. - Location + cultural/human meaning = PLACE - **[Sense of place:]** the feelings evoked by, or deep attachments to, specific locations (places) such as home, that result from the experiences individuals associate with the location - Reinforced by local and regional characteristics and uniqueness (e.g., we travel to experience what makes a place unique) - E.g., childhood home, Egyptian Pyramids, Eifel Tower, etc. - **[Sacred place:]** a location with particular significance to an individual or a group, usually for religious reasons - Evoke strong feelings and strong sense of place - E.g., cemeteries, churches, etc. - **[Placelessness:]** the nature of locations that lack uniqueness or individual character; homogenous and standardized landscapes - Opposite of sacred places - Evoke little or no meaning - E.g., chain stores, East Side Marios mimics fake Italy **Concepts: Regions** - Sense of place can apply to areas: regions - **[Region:]** a part of the earth's surface that displays internal homogeneity and is relatively distinct from surrounding areas according to certain criteria; a continuous spatial unit - E.g., Latin America speak the same language contributing to its uniformity - Regional Geography uses both physical and human geographic understandings of the world - Study of **[area differentiation:]** areas of earth that are different from one another **Concepts: Regionalization** - **[Regionalization:]** the process of classifying locations or areas of the earth's surface into various regions - The world is complex and full of differences; regional geographers' goal is to find similarities among places - E.g., regions of Italy that use the same pasta - Regions may vary for many reasons: - ***Subjectivity*** -- regional understandings vary from person to person - ***Scale*** -- regions vary depending on one's spatial perspective (e.g., local regions vs. global regions) - ***Theme*** - regions vary depending on one's thematic perspective (e.g., in terms of physical characteristics, economic activities, social/cultural values, etc.) - Differences between areas of the world -- these differences relate to their *[landscapes ]* - E.g., regions in Africa are different than regions in North America **Concepts: Landscape** - **[Landscape:]** the characteristics, or overall appearance, of a particular area or location, comprising a ***[combination of natural and human influences ]*** - E.g., Prairies: flat, lacks vegetation, agricultural land, etc. - **[Cultural landscape:]** the characteristics, or overall appearance, of a particular area or location, resulting from ***[human modification of the natural environment ]*** - Reflects unique adaptations of human environments by cultural groups - E.g., humans modify natural environments and turn them into suburban landscapes - Cultural landscapes have a symbolic meaning **Concepts: Distance** - **[Distance:]** a measure of the amount of space between two or more locations 1. ***Absolute/physical distance:*** measured in KM, miles, Inch, etc. 2. ***Travel distance (relative):*** travel time (e.g., 4 hours 45 mins) 3. ***Economic/communication distance:*** measured in cost (\$) for courier 4. ***Psychological (perceptual) distance (relative):*** feels like a short distance when you're excited vs feels like a long distance when you're nervous a. **[Perception:]** the process by which humans acquire information about physical and social environments; a way of interpreting one's lived experience WEEK 2: KEY CONCEPTS CONT. -------------------------- **Lecture 3: Key Concepts Pt. 2** **[Geographic/spatial literacy:]** ability to communicate with each other using appropriate geographic terms **Concepts: Spatial Distribution** - Geographic/spatial phenomena: spatial/geographic distribution - Spatial phenomena (humans, mountains, factories) can be explained with reference to the distance between the, and their spatial organization -- this called spatial/geographic distribution - **[Distribution:]** the spatial arrangement of geographic phenomena (e.g., people) within an area - **Three forms of spatial distribution** 1. **[Density:]** a measure of the relationship between the number of geographic phneomena (e.g., people) and a unit of area; expressed as a ratio a. E.g., people per squared KM b. A high population does not necessarily mean a high density c. E.g., 10 people per 1KM2 is HIGH DENSITY vs. 30 people per 1KM2 is LOW DENSITY 2. **[Concentration:]** the spread of geographic phenomena (e.g., people) over a given area d. ***Clustered/agglomerated/concentrated***: occurs when the distance between geographic phenomena (e.g., people) is small; clustering (agglomerating) occurs when geographic phenomena (e.g., businesses) move closer together, sometimes around a nucleus i. E.g., auto-assembly factories are clustered together e. ***Dispersed/deagglomerated/scattered***: occurs when the distance between geographic phenomena (e.g., people) is large; dispersion (deagglomerating) occurs when geographic phenomena (e.g., businesses) move apart from one another ii. E.g. grocery stores are spread farther apart from each other 3. **[Pattern:]** the geometric, regular, or other (i.e., random) spatial arrangement of geographic phenomena (e.g., people) in a given area f. E.g., linear (subway stations), rectilinear (street grids), random, etc. **Concepts: Diffusion** - **[Diffusion:]** the process of geographic phenomena spreading over space and through time - E.g., Walmart store locations spreading in U.S. - **[Cultural diffusion:]** the process of cultural phenomena (e.g., ideas, innovations, trends, languages) spreading over space and through time - E.g., religion, language, fashion trends, etc. 1. ***Relocation diffusion:*** one of two forms of diffusion in which the geographic phenomena are physically moved from one area to another such as through immigration or trade a. E.g., immigrants bring their cultural suitcase with them b. Euro coins moving through France 2. ***Expansion diffusion:*** one of two basic forms of diffusion in which geographic phenomena spread from one are to another through an additive process c. *Contagious Diffusion:* one form of expansion diffusion in which geo phenomena spread rapidly and throughout an area (e.g., infectious disease, gossip, religion) d. *Hierarchal diffusion:* one of two forms of expansion diffusion in which geographic phenomena spread first to key/highly influential people or places and then gradually throughout the rest of a population or an area (e.g., new fashion first in Milan fashion capital and later to local malls) **Concepts: Spatial Interaction** - **[Spatial interaction:]** the nature and extent of the relationship or linkages between locations; the extent of spatial interaction is related to the distances between locations and the physical and intangible connections between them - ***First law of geo:*** Everything is related to everything else, but near things are more related than distant things **Concepts: Distance Decay & Friction of Distance** - **[Distance Decay:]** the effect of distance on spatial interaction; generally, intensity of interaction diminishes with increasing distance - E.g., you have less interaction with hometown friends after moving - **[Friction of distance:]** a measure of the restraining effect of distance on human interaction and movement; generally, greater time and cost are incurred with increasing distance - Intensity of interaction declines as distance increases (as things get farther apart, there is less interaction between them) - **[Accessibility:]** a variable quality of a location, expressing the opportunity for interaction with other locations - The ease with which a location can be reaches from other locations - Technological advances in transportations and communication have reduced the friction of distance making locations more accessible today - As accessibility increases, connections also increase - **[Connectivity:]** the direct and indirect linkages between two or more locations - ***Tangible connections*** (e.g., highways, hydro powerlines) - ***Intangible connections*** (e.g., immigrants have bonds with people in their homelands) **Lecture 4: Human geographic tools** **Introduction to Maps** - **[Map:]** typically, a flat representation of the earth's surface, or a portion of it, and its geographic features including people, places, and geo phenomena - Used to communication information - Used to analyze (solve) spatial problems - Maps are ***[socially constructed ]*** - Maps reflect the people who create them - Map design (cartographer) reflects the priorities of them we should view them critically **Maps: challenge of projections** - It is difficult to portray 3D (the globe) sphere in 2D - **[Projection:]** a process to transform the spherical earth's surface onto a two-dimensional map; a process to transfer locations from the earth's surface onto a flat map - Three forms of projections which all have varying levels of accuracy - Main forms of distortion in the projection process include distance, direction, and area distortion 1. **[Cylindrical projections:]** the earth's surface is projected onto a cylinder that just touches the outside edges of the globe at the equator a. Accuracy is greatest at the equator and distortion increases as you move towards the poles b. *[BASKETBALL EXAMPLE]* c. E.g., Mercator Projection (used for navigation) 2. **[Conical projections:]** the earth's surface is projected onto a cone that touches the outside edges of the globe in the mid-latitudes d. Accuracy is greatest in the mid-latitudes e. Lamp shape f. E.g., Lambert conformal conic projection 3. **[Azimuthal projections:]** the earth's surface is projected onto a flat surface that touches the globe at one point (usually the poles) g. Effective for mapping north and south poles - There are MANY different projections including: Mollweide, Robinson, Goode (orange peel), etc. **The Global Grid: Latitude & Longitude** - **[Latitude and longitude:]** a system to identify absolute locations - **[Latitude (parallels):]** the angular distance of a point on the surface of the earth, measured in degrees, minutes and seconds, north and south of the equator (which is assigned a value of 0 degrees); lines of constant latitude are called parallels - Each degree of latitude is subdivided into 60 minutes and 60 seconds - Each degree of latitude is \~111KM - **[Longitude (meridians):]** the angular distance of a point on the surface of the earth, measured in degrees, minutes and seconds, east and west of the prime meridian (which is assigned a value of 0 degrees) which runs through Greenwich, UK, among other places; lines of constant latitude are called meridians - Series of arcs which meet/converge at the north and south poles - Mardians are arcs: get further apart towards the equator - Placement of prime meridian = political \*LAT tells you how far north or south of the equator you are; LONG tells you how far east or west of PM you are - **Longitude and time zones** - **[Time Zone:]** a region of the earth that observes a uniform standard time - Earth rotates on its axis every 24hr and is divided into 360 degrees of longitude (each is 15 degrees) - 24 hr = 360 degrees of longitude =\> 15 degrees is equivalent to 1 hr. - Political considerations: time zones do not always follow the meridians **Types of Maps: Introduction** **[Reference Maps:]** a map portraying the absolute locations of places and geographic phenomena (e.g., buildings) using a standard frame of reference such as the global grid (latitude and longitude) **[Thematic maps:]** an analytical tool to illustrate and emphasize the spatial variation of a particular theme or attribute - Dot maps - Choropleth maps - Isopleth maps - Cartograms **Types of Maps: Reference Maps** - Accurate representation of spatial data (e.g., Google Map, topographic map) **Types of Maps: Thematic Maps -- Solving Spatial Problems** **[Dot Map:]** a thematic map where dots are used or scale adjusted symbols represent geographic phenomena (e.g., population, illness outbreaks) - E.g., dot map helped trace origin of cholera outbreak Jon Snow **[Choropleth map:]** a thematic map using colour or shading to indicate intensity of geographic phenomena (e.g., population density) in a given area - E.g., population density in India where light shades indicate low density and dark shades indicate high density **[Isopleth map:]** a thematic map using lines to connect locations of equal value with respect to geo phenomena **[Cartogram:]** a thematic map where the size and shape of spatial areas are intentionally distorted and replaced by the relative magnitude of the geo phenomena (e.g., country's wealth or amounts of McDonald's restaurants) **Types of Maps: Geographic Information Systems (GIS)** - **[Geographic Information System (GIS):]** a system of computer hardware and software that facilitates the collection, storage, analysis, and display of spatially referenced data through layered maps - Powerful tool for analyzing complex spatial problems - Uses multiple layers - Growing field - Career opportunities WEEK 3: UNEVEN DEVELOPMENT (CH. 5.1-5.2) ---------------------------------------- **Lecture 5: Intro to Development a Divided World** **What is Development?** - **Spatial Variations** in terms of material well-being: the 'haves' and 'have nots' - Haves have access to resources while have nots do not - **Spatial scales** - Variations exist in material well-being exist at many different scales (e.g., global regional, national, local, etc.) - Local scale -- wealthy vs rich neighbourhoods; national scale: wealthy areas of Canada vs poor areas of Canada - MOST people live in places between the extremes of level of. Development (levels 1-4) - We can measure wealth using GNI per capita to see levels of development globally - ***We refer to variations in material well-being in terms of levels of development*** - **[Development:]** a process that brings about changes in economic prosperity and quality of life; an improvement in the material conditions of life; measures traditionally by economic criteria, but increasingly in more holistic ways including health, education, etc. - **[More Developed World:]** a group of countries including Canada, the U.S\>, most of Europe, Australia, New Zealand, and Japan, that are characterized by a high standard of living and social well-being - **[Less Developed World]**: a large group of countries characterized by low standards of living and social well-being - Typically, we think of development in mostly economic terms (e.g., the standard of living, income, wealth, etc.) - Measured in GDP, GNI, etc. - We also need to think of development in broader (more holistic) terms by incorporating; quality of life', 'equality', and 'wellbeing' - Homes, access to housing, food, etc. **Differentiating Levels of Development** - We generally think about development as a continuum between two points (most-least developed) - E.g., Third world vs First and Second world; more and less developed, etc. - ***The world is not actually divided in such a binary way (many countries fall between extremes)*** - Characteristics of the Less Developed World (LDW), in relation to the More Developed World (MDW) include: - Higher poverty rates, mortality, fertility rates - Lower literacy, less industrialization - LDW have lower life expectancies than MDW - Much of the LDW are former COLONIES - **[Colonialism:]** the forceful appropriation of foreign territory; usually established and maintained through military and political structures; creates unequal cultural and economic relations; usually involves the displacement of indigenous populations **Theoretical Approaches to Development** - Following the de-colonization movements of the 1960s: - Many countries achieved political independence in 1960s-1960s - But concerns centred around how these newly formed countries would achieve economic independence - ***Prominent theories to understand development:*** - Modernization theory (Walter Rostow) - Dependency theory - World Systems Theory (Immanuel Wallerstein) **Theories of Development: Modernization Theory** - Rostow - Questioned how newly independent countries in Africa and Asia would survive economically - Studied how economically powerful countries had arrived where they are and assumed these new countries would do the same - Believed there was a **path to development** in which countries advanced through 5 stages of development - If we can understand how the U.S. became economically independent, we can say that other countries that follow this path can become economically independent - Described process of **[industrialization:]** a process of economic and social change that transforms a society (country) from largely agricultural to industrial, involving an extensive reorganization of the economy toward manufacturing and of society toward being urban; typically associated with an industrial revolution; often regarded as a key step in increasing a country's level of development - **Rostow's Modernization Theory (5 stages):** 1. ***[Traditional:]*** subsistence farming, low levels of technology, resistance to change (e.g., farming to feed family) 2. ***[Pre-Conditions for Take-Off:]*** new political leadership, greater acceptance of chance, economic diversification (move away from subsistence agriculture) 3. ***[Take-Off:]*** an industrial revolution, urbanization, economic growth (rural to urban move) 4. ***[Drive to Maturity:]*** international trade and greater economic competitiveness (international trade instead of just producing for local economy) 5. ***[High Mass Consumption:]*** accumulations of wealth, a shift towards services (rather than production) **Theories of Development: Dependency Theory** - Examines the historical and contemporary geographical relationship between the more and less developed worlds - ***This relationship is tied to a history of conquest and exploitation (colonialism)*** - Dependence is a key factor of the relationship between MDW and LDW - **[Dependence:]** in political contexts, a relationship in which one state (or people) is dependent on and therefore dominated by another state - **[Dependency Theory:]** a theory that connects disparities in levels of development to the relationship between dependent and dominant states - A long history of economic, political, and social domination by a colonial power resulted in colonies becoming dependent - This dependency hinders the colonies' ability to become more developed - **[Critics:]** how to explain that some former colonies have made significant economic progress **Theories of Development: World Systems Theory** - **[World Systems Theory:]** a set of ideas centred around the notion that the world is an *interdependent system of countries* linked together by an economic and political competition that shaped relations between core (more developed), semi-peripheral (less developed), and peripheral (least developed) countries - A theoretical way of understanding the historical and contemporary relationships between countries with respect to the global economic system, and sheds light on how this system benefits some and exploits others (e.g., dependency relationship) - **[Core countries:]** Europe, North America, Australia, New Zealand (industrialized, more developed) - **[Semi-Peripheral:]** China, India, Brazil, Mexico (less developed/developing/urbanizing) - **[Peripheral:]** Sub-Saharan Africa, Central and Southeast Asia (least developed /least industrialized/rural) - Core countries exploited their colonies for labour and natural resources for their own benefit - This allowed the colonial powers to become economically powerful, while their colonies became dependent for help, governance, etc. - The effects of colonialism still linger in terms of this inequality - Contemporary globalization (neo-colonialism) perpetuates this relationship - Core countries continue to depend on peripheral and semi-peripheral places to provide cheap labour - Core depends on there being cheap labour to provide services - At the same time, peripheral and semi-peripheral countries rely on core countries for employment, financial aid, etc. **Lecture 6: Measuring Development** **Introduction** - **Spatial variations in terms of well-being** - The haves and have nots - Despite this, MOST of the world's population falls between these two extremes - **Various spatial scales** - E.g., global (across the world), regional (within a city), national, local - **Well-being and levels of development** - We refer to variations in well-being in terms of levels of development; areas are considered along a continuum between more developed and less developed **Measuring Development: Economic Tools** - Development: wealth or prosperity (i.e., average income) - Per Capita (per person) income is hard to calculate - **[Proxy measures:]** - ***[GDP (gross domestic product):]*** a monetary measure of the market value of all goods and services produced within a country over a given period - Aggregate value of all goods that all Canadians and business produce in a year - ***[GNI (gross national income):]*** a monetary measure of the market value of goods and services produced within a country, plus income from investments abroad, over a given period - Take value from GDP but also includes the returns on investments of individuals who have invested elsewhere AND of businesses that have invested (e.g., in a factory) and have earned profits elsewhere **Global Income Inequality: GNI (per capita)** - At the global scale, measures like these are used to determine various levels of economic development - Global wealth: mostly concentrated in core countries - Global poverty: mostly concentrated in peripheral countries **Global Income Inequality: PPP** - **GNI per capita is problematic** 1. ***[Formal vs informal economy ]*** a. ONLY measures the formal (businesses monitored by government) and not the informal (economic activities outside of government) economy b. Up to 80% of economy activity in some countries is from informal economy (which is not covered by GNI measure) 2. ***[Variations within a country]*** c. GNI is inflated by wealth of individuals that does not affect the ordinary person (millionaires may make country's GNI higher than is realistic) 3. ***[Differences in cost of living ]*** d. Currency valuation - An alternative: adjust for purchasing power - **[Purchasing Power Parity (PPP):]** a tool that measures the relative cost of a common market basket of goods and services for comparing cost of living between countries; useful in conjunction with aggregate macroeconomic measures of economic activity like GDP per capita or GNI per capita - **[PPP:]** measures how much a common 'market basket' of goods and services each currency can purchase locally - If we use GNI per capita, Canada is 10x wealthier than Ecuador, BUT if you adjust what you can buy with that income, you can only buy 4x as much milk (difference in average income becomes less significant because things are more expensive to buy in Canada) - Market basket of goods can include, transportation, food, education, communication, etc. - Impact -- PPP lowers the relative GNI in wealthy countries and raises it in poor countries - **[Compression --]** this compresses the range of incomes (narrows the gap between wealthiest and poorest countries) - **[Uneven economic prosperity]** -- even with this compression, economic prosperity remains unevenly distributed across nations - PPP: narrows gap between the rich and poor countries but does not significantly alter the fundamental spatial relationships (wealthiest nations are still the wealthiest and poor nations are still the poorest) **Measuring Development: Social Tools** - Economic measures assume that they are reliable surrogate measures of social development - **[Social development]** -- social investment (invest wealth in education, health, housing, etc.) - Social development is important because it is not just about having wealth but what you do with it - Measures of social development reflect significant disparities between the more and less developed worlds - E.g., literacy rates are lower in less developed countries (less investment of resources in education) **Measuring Development: Social & Economic Tools** - Combine measure of economic and social development - A more holistic measure of development - **[Human Development Index (HDI):]** a numerical measure of how well basic human needs are being met; a composite index incorporating health (life expectancy), education (years of schooling), and income (GNI per capita) - Theoretical range: 0 (no development) to 1.0 (full development) - A general association exists between HDI and GNI pc but only in a general way **Addressing Inequality: IHDI & GII** - **Gender & Equality** - Differential social and economic roles played by men and women - Most measures of development ignore the different social and economic roles played by men and women (e.g., unpaid employment like child rearing); GNI does not incorporate these things - Inequality is being considered - **Inequality Adjusted HDI and Gender Inequality Index** - **What about accounting for less material evidence of development?** - E.g., political freedom, access to goods beyond the minimum required to survive, environmental quality, safety, etc. WEEK 4: UNEVEN DEVELOPMENT -- WORLD HUNGER AND AID -------------------------------------------------- **Lecture 7: Consequences of Uneven Development & Issues of World Hunger (5.3-5.6)** **Introduction** - We have considered uneven distribution of global wealth and standard of living - E.g., the 'haves' and 'have nots' - What does all this mean? What is the significance of this inequality? (WHY CARE) - Consider some babies: - Born in X have little chance of getting education or surviving; civil conflict, natural disaster, etc., may cause them to become refugees - Today: global food crisis - How does uneven development cause this food crisis? **Can we Feed the World's Population?** - Q: can we currently feed the world's population? - A: Yes, since c. 1800, food production increased faster than population - World food production (since 1800s) is greater than world population - **[The Green Revolution]**: the 20^th^ century introduction of new technologies (including mechanization, fertilizers, pesticides, new crop strains, and more intensive land use) that dramatically increased agricultural production, especially as they were introduced in areas of the less developed world; sometimes called the **Third Agricultural Revolution** - New crop strains - Mechanization - Increased use of fertilizers and pesticides to make crops more resistant - Conversion of new land to cultivation - Intensification of agricultural resources - ALL OF THESE FACTORS INCREASED FOOD PRODUCTION - Food supply vs food demand - We grow about 1.5X as much food as we need; this is enough to support a population of around **10 BILLION people or more** - At the global level, there is no food shortage - Around **650-750 MILLION** people go hungry (8-10% of population) - Hungry people concentrated in South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa - With global population continuing to grow, the food problem remains serious **Our Nutritional Quality of Life** - How do we measure this hunger? - Basic caloric requirements for a healthy life - **Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of UN:** - ***Recommended minimum:*** around 2100 calories per day - ***Absolute minimum:*** around 1800 calories per day - Variations based on: - Occupation (less calories for office jobs) - Age, gender, physical size, pregnancy, younger or older - Climate (cold vs. hot vs. temperate climates) - **[Undernutrition:]** a dietary condition in which an individual consumes a quantity of food insufficient to sustain normal and healthy life; sometimes referred to as undernourishment - Refers to not getting enough calories - QUANTITY of food/calories - Quality of food - Refers to adequate portions of protein, vitamins, minerals, fat, etc. - **[Malnutrition:]** an umbrella category of dietary conditions, including undernutrition and overnutrition, in which an individual's dietary needs are not being met, through too little food, too much food, or the wrong balance of food (nutrients, vitamins, protein, etc.) - E.g., underweight (undernourished) and overweight/obese (overnutrition) - Lack of essential nutrients leads = susceptible to illness **World Hunger** - Worldwide: around 650-750 MILLION people are undernourished (not getting ENOUGH food) - Change over the last 4-5 decades: absolute vs. relative - Absolute: no significant change in people being hungry - Relative: 14% in 2001 to 8-9% today (proportion of people who are undernourished) - **Spatial variation of Undernourished People**: (2022) - South Asia: \~300M - Sub-Saharan Africa: \~250M - Latin America: \~50M - South-Eastern Asia: \~25M - Northern Africa: \~25M - MDW: \~less than 10M - Spatial variations in undernourishment: - Generally high: Sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, and parts of Southeast Asia, Latin America, etc. - Current Crises: Yemen, Sudan, South Sudan, Afghanistan - World caloric consumption (average): 2780 calories - This is more than 50% higher than recommended required caloric intake (which is 2100 calories) - Spatial variations" - MDW: 3470 calories - U.S. = 3800; Canada = 3650 - LDW: - Sub-Saharan Africa: 2290 (some get well below this average) - Averages: higher and lower - Americans and Canadians many get way more than this average whereas Sub-Saharan Africans many get way less than this average - National Geographic - The Future of Food (2013-14) \*GRAPH SHOWING CALORIE INTAKES PER COUNTRY - Spatial Distribution of Daily Caloric Supply - Reflects variations between MDW and LDW - Average measures of calorie intake mask significant regional and local differences (e.g., urban poor) - **Q: What are the causes of severe food shortage, and what determines the risk of famine?** - Explanations relate to the STRUCTURAL CONSTRAINTS (incentives) built into our global system (e.g., World System Theory) and governance - ***Geopolitical:*** farmers are encouraged to grow and export crops rather than staple for people to eat (farmers are incentivized to grow cocoa and coffee to ship to MDW rather than staple crops to feed their own country) - ***Economic:*** food is viewed as a commodity (for profit) instead of for survival - ***Governance:*** poor governance exacerbates food shortage problems - The Role of Food Aid - Short-term solution: key in times of crisis - Longer term aid exacerbates these existing issues **Our Food Future** - Protein: - Unequal consumption, and differential sources of protein - Cultural preferences and physical geographic conditions - Levels of development, consumption, and environmental impacts - As societies become more developed, they consume more protein (animal-based) which has environmental impacts - Differential (and changing diets + projected global population growth + environmental challenges - These features all point to a potential 'perfect storm' for food supply in this century - Can we produce enough food? - Is food supply the problem, or is it just poorly distributed? - **Feeding Nine Billion: Four Key Strategies** 1. Increase food production via better utilizing existing science and technology 2. Better food distribution systems 3. Support local food production systems (local farmers) 4. Stronger government regulation and proactive and sustainable policies **Lecture 8: Understanding Development: Aid, Debt, & Sustainable Development (5.7-5.8)** **Introduction:** - Spatial variations in terms of well-being - The haves and have nots - MOST of the world's population falls between these two extremes - Spatial scales (variations exist at numerous spatial scales) - E.g., global, regional, national, global, etc. - Levels of development (we refer to these variations in well-being in terms of levels of development) - Areas are considered on a continuum between more developed and less developed - Explanations: - History of colonialism and contemporary geopolitical and economic contexts of globalization - Measures of economic and social development - E.g., GDP, GNI, HDI (human and economic index) - Consequences of uneven development - Hunger, poverty, informal settlements, migration conflict, etc. **International Aid** - A common (and long-standing) way of mitigating uneven development is through international aid (there are several forms) - **[Aid:]** resources (e.g., capital, materials, or labour) that are given by one country (or organization) to another to assist in times of crisis or to support development; typically involves the flow of resources from more developed regions to less developed ones; sometimes referred to as foreign aid, international aid, development aid, or humanitarian aid - Two main types: - ***[Development aid (or financial aid):]*** medium- or long-term strategic investments (loans) or grants (cash) given by governments or other agencies to support the economic, social, and political development of countries or regions; sometimes referred to as financial aid - ***[Humanitarian aid:]*** typically, a short-term response to a crisis (e.g., drought, war, epidemic or natural disaster) that takes the form of material (e.g., food, medicine, shelter) and logistical support **Development Aid** - **[Development aid:]** - ***[Bilateral:]*** direct country to country (e.g., Canada to Haiti) - Via Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) recently renamed Global Affairs Canada - ***[Multilateral:]*** through an international agency (multiple countries providing support) - E.g., UN Development program (UNDP); International Monetary Fund (IMF); the World Bank; International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRS), etc. - **[Government Aid (Official Development Assistance):]** the official form of assistance provided by member countries of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD); aid/assistance that is undertaken by official government agencies with the goal of promoting economic development and welfare in less developed countries - Tool for MDW governments to: - Provide humanitarian assistance in times of crisis - Make strategic investments in other countries (usually LDW) - Incentivize countries to adopt certain policies (e.g., trade liberalization, birth control, etc.) - Develop alliances - Facilitate regime change (government change) - In 2020, 30 OECD donor countries have \~\$161 billion directed towards 150 developing countries - **Development Assistance Committee (DAC) of the OECD:** promote inclusive and sustainable economic growth, poverty eradication, improvement of living standards in developing countries - Made up of 30 countries: Canada, U.S., much of Europe, Australia, New Zealand, Japan, and South Korea - In 2020, \~\$161billion made up about 0.3% of GNI of the donor countries but the UN's target is for the contributions to make up 0.7% of donor countries' GNI **Humanitarian Aid** - Humanitarian Aid can take several forms, including formal (official) government support, but also charitable/philanthropic support and remittances - **[Private charitable or philanthropic (Non-Governmental Organization):]** e.g., Live Aid, Make Poverty History, Bill & Melina Gates Foundation - Bill and Melina Gates - Top 10 wealthiest people via Microsoft - Addresses health issues, reduces extreme poverty, climate change, etc. - Chuck Feeney - Billionaire founder of Duty-Free Shops in airports - 'Giving while Living' (philanthropic effort) - While not aid per se, remittances account for a significant redistribution of money from MDW to LDW - **[Remittances:]** a transfer of money from private savings, earnings, etc., by a foreign worker to an individual or family in their home country - E.g., \~10 MILLION Bangladeshis working abroad sent home \~\$18 BILLION in 2019; second-largest source of foreign earnings - Humanitarian aid can help in times of crisis, but it often fails as a medium- or long-term solution - Political issues - Inequality - Issues of dependency **Development & Humanitarian Aid** - Does aid work? - **[Pro-Aid Advocates:]** - Aid serves to finance the core inputs to financial development, such as teachers, health centres, transportation housing, clean water, etc. - **[Anti-Aid Critics]** - Aid is an excellent method for transferring money from poor people in rich countries to rich people in poor countries -- Peter Bauer (lots of aid money is used by corrupt people in poor countries) - MDW guilt fuels international aid to LDW; aid as a band aid solution that eases guilt of being so wealthy compared to poor nations and for being the reason less developed countries cannot develop (because they are dependent are former colonialist countries in MDW) - Aid is directed primarily to serve national interests - E.g., of top 10 countries the UK provides aid to, not one is among the list of the most impoverished countries, rather they are all trading partners (aid to ensure that UK itself can benefit from trading relationship) **Debt & Debt-Relief** - Developing Economies and Debt - **[Debt relief:]** another approach to stimulate development - **The Debt-Relief Context:** - Regional development problems: 'modernization' development programs - To resolve regional development problems (1960s-1980s) LDW countries turned to **'modernization' development programs** - These programs were fueled by: - [High-interest loans] from MDW countries/governments - [Paying interest] on the loans (servicing of debt) means there is less money available for social services (e.g., able to build schools but no money for teachers) - [Default] -- unable to service their debts, many governments defaulted on them - Developing Economies and Debt: - 1996: **the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) Initiative** - Launched by IMF and World Bank - Aim of ensuring that no poor country faces a debt burden it cannot manage - 2005: **Multilateral Debt Relief Initiative (MDRI)** - Allows for 100% relief on eligible debts held by IMF, the World Bank, and African Development Fund (AfDf) - \~\$100 billion in debt - 2007: **the Inter-American Development Bank (IaBD)** - Provided additional debt relief - Today, approximately 37 countries receiving debt relief - Mostly countries in Africa - Wiping off remnants of debt to allow countries to pay for social services - **African Case-Study:** - Investment by western governments and business in Africa has declined - Investment gap filled by China (who invested \~\$20B a year through direct government investment) - Belt & Road initiative: global infrastructure development strategy to build roads for African nations - African countries are seeking new infrastructure are turning to China for help - Pressure is mounting on China to forgive some African debt **Political Governance & Leadership** - Governments can be a direct and indirect cause of low economic and social development - **[Governance:]** consists of the traditions and institutions by which authority ina. country is exercised, including (1) the process by which governments are selected, monitored, and replaced; (2) the capacity of the government to effectively formulate and implement sound policies; and (3) the respect of citizens and the state for the institutions that govern economic and social interactions among them - Authoritarian and corrupt government redirect scare resources (like aid from other countries) to the privileged few rather than the population as a whole - Natural resource wealth leads to even more corrupt governance and less economic and social development - **[World Bank's World Governance Indicators (WGI):]** a set of indicators assessing the quality of governance in a country, including accountability, stability, effectiveness, regulatory controls, rule of law, and control of corruption - Strong correlation between democratic governance and levels of economic and social development - **[Freedom House]**: lobby group in US ranks countries by their levels of freedom linked to democratic governance - Notions of freedom and democracy are not static - U.S. -- many have pointed to US as a leader and advocate for freedom, democracy, and development **Multilateral Development: Measuring Global Progress** - 2000: **United National Millennium Summit** -- world leaders and international organizations signed the Millennium Declaration aiming to combat global development issues (poverty, hunger, disease, illiteracy, environmental degradation) - Time bound targets (deadline of 2015): **the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs):** - Eradicate extreme hunger and poverty - Achieve universal primary education - Promote gender equality and empower women - Reduce child mortality - Improve maternal health - Combat HIV/AIDS - Ensure environmental sustainability - Develop a global partnership for development - Since introducing the MDGs, areas have seen progress e.g., in eliminating extreme poverty, primary education, maternal and child mortality, etc. - In 2015, United Nations adopted the **2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development** to build on the achievements of the MDGs - A call to end poverty, protect the planet, and ensure all people enjoy peace and prosperity - **Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs):** the Global Goals (17 Goals) -- ABMITIOUS GLOBAL ATTEMPT TO HELP THE GLOBAL COMMUNITY - Improving access to safe drinking water was one of the MDGs (7) and is also one of the SDGs (6) but it is also related to many of the other goals (health, hunger, environment stewardship, etc.) WEEK 5: POPULATION & MIGRATION ------------------------------ **Lecture 9: Global Population Distribution & Change (4.1)** **Introduction: The Study of Population & Health** - Population & Health Studies: - **[Demography:]** the study of human populations - **[Population & Health Geography:]** the study of the spatial dimensions of population and health - Where do people live and work? - How does population change overtime? - How do people live? **Population Distribution** - Current global population = \~8.2 billion people (July 2024) - Global population in the past - 6.7 billion in 2006 - 1.5 billion people in YOUR lifetime: approx. 230,000 people per day - Population by country - China = 1.4B/India = 1.4B - U.S. = 0.33B (335 million) - Indonesia = 0.28B (281 million) - Canada's population - 41 million (ranked \#36) **Population Distribution: Concentration** - **[Distribution:]** the spatial arrangement of geographic phenomena (people) within an area; includes density, concentration, and pattern - **Uneven population distribution** - Areas of concentrated population and dispersed population - Factors: - ***Physical geographic:*** - Climate (suitability to live in) - Physiography: topography, cannot live in mountainous areas - ***Human geographic*** - E.g., history of settlement - Industrialization (impact on development and development increases population) - Concentrated population: South Central Asia, East Asia, Europe - Dispersed population: North Africa, Northern North America, Northern Eurasia, Australia, etc. **Population Distribution & Levels of Development** - Haves and have notes (development levels) correlate with population - The most populous countries tend not to be part of the global core (MDW) - **Most populous countries are peripheral or semi-peripheral** - What are the consequences of this? - Large number of people who live in poverty and with poor access to health care, education, housing, etc. (informal slum settlements) **Global Population Distribution & Levels of Development** \*TABLE **Population Distribution: Density** - **[Population density:]** a measure of the relationship between the number of geographic phenomena (people) and a unit of area; expressed as a ratio - Measures of population density: - ***Arithmetic (crude) density:*** the total number of people per unit of area - ***Physiological density:*** population per unit of cultivable (arable) land (more people live in arable land areas) **Population growth** - **Global Population Growth:** - Major thresholds and time periods - Nov. 2022 = 8.08 billion - 1800 -- population reached 1 billion - There has been a decrease in the number of years it has taken for the population to increase (it took 130 years for population to change from 1 to 2 billion from 1800 to 1930, but it only took 11 years to reach 8 billion in 2022) - **Population growth rate:** \~0.9% (0.8% in 2020) per year - At a growth rate of 0.9% it would take 75 years for population to double - Doubling Time: \~75 years - **[Double time:]** the number of years required for the population of an area to double in its present size, given the current rate of population growth **Nature and Consequences of Population Growth** - Beyond simple growth, the key issues are: 1. Where it will occur (i.e., differential population growth)? a. Spatially: Africa b. Less developed areas (5% of births in MDW and 55% of births in LDW and 40% in LeastDW) 2. What are the consequences of population growth? c. LDW: high population impacts access to food, health care, water, energy, etc. d. MDW: less population growth but greater environmental consequences **Limits to Growth** - Are there limits to population growth, population density, and the capacity of the earth to support our population? - **[Overpopulation:]** a belief that an area's population exceeds the capacity of the environment to support life at a decent standard of living; can apply to local areas or the entire planet - **[Carrying Capacity:]** the maximum population that can be supported by a given set of resources and a given level of technology - Two contrasting perspectives: - ***Catastrophists:*** population increases and continuing environmental deterioration are leading to a nightmarish future of environmental catastrophe, including flooding, mass extinctions, food shortages, disease, and conflict - ***Cornucopians:*** argue that advances in science and technology, along with cultural adaptation will continue to create resources sufficient to support the growing world population and mitigate environmental change **Lecture 10: Population Growth Theory & Dynamics (4.2-4.9)** **Population Dynamics** - **Globally, population is understood by Fertility (births) and Mortality (deaths)** - P1 (today's population) = P0 (last year's population) + (B-D) - **[Fertility:]** a population's natural capability of having children; the number of live births produced by a woman - **[Mortality:]** deaths as a component of population change - **Regionally, population is also influenced by population movement: Migration (immigration and emigration)** - P1 (Today's population) = P0 (last year's population) + (B-D) + (I-E) - **[Migration:]** the long-term permanent relocation of an individual or group of people from one area to another **Fertility: Measures & Factors** 1. **Crude birth rate (CBR):** CBR = (B/P) x 100 a. Total number of live births per year for 1000 people already living - True fertility measures the number of children being born relative to: - The number of women in the population - The number of women of child-bearing age (i.e., 15 years old -- 49 years old) 2. **General fertility rate (or fecundity) (GFR):** GFR = (B/PF 15-49) x 1000 3. TFR: the average number of children a woman will have in her fecund/reproductive years (15-49) b. Rates vary by levels of development c. **[Replacement-Level Fertility (replacement Rate):]** the level of fertility at which a population exactly replaces itself from one generation to the next i. Replacement Rate (TFR) = \~2.1-2.5 (higher than 2 to replace woman and spouse because some children may die) - **Factors influencing rates of fertility** - ***Biological:*** age, nutritional wellbeing, infertility - ***Economic:*** level of economic development - ***Cultural:*** complex and interrelated factors; marriage rates, contraceptive use, abortion, gender equality, women empowerment **Fertility: Distribution** - **[Total Fertility Rate:]** average number of children a woman will have in her reproductive years - TFR is lower in MDW (TFR lower than replacement level) and higher in LDW **Mortality: Measures & Factors** 1. **[Crude death rate]** (CDR): CDR = (D/P) x 1000 a. Total number of deaths per year for every 1000 people - CDR does not account for the age of the population - Older populations (full of 65+) have high CDR (as seen in MDW) - Young populations (LDW) have high CDR (people die young) 2. **[Infant mortality rate (]**an age-adjusted rate): b. IMR: less than 10 in Canada, Japan, Sweden, Finland, etc. c. IMR: \~100 in Sierra Leone, Central African Rep., etc. 3. **[Life expectancy:]** average number of years of life d. LE: \~60 in Sub-Saharan Africa e. LE: \~80 in Japan, Canada, etc. - **Many factors influence rates of mortality:** - Age of population (young population has low mortality rates UNLESS they have low development) - Access to healthcare - Economic development - Environmental conditions (sanitation) **Mortality: Distribution** - **[Life expectancy:]** average number of years an infant can expect to live - **[Sex gap]** (female LE is higher than male LE) - Life expectancies vary in the LDW and MDW **Population Natural Increase: Distribution** - **[Population Natural Increase/Growth:]** - Fertility rate (CBR) -- mortality rate (CDR): Rate of Natural Growth (either pos or neg) - High fertility and low mortality rate = high levels of natural increase - **[Population momentum:]** countries with large population of young people, even with declining fertility rates, have significant momentum and will continue to see growth for several generations **Population Growth Theory** - Population growth: \~7 billion in 200 years - Several theories have been suggested to explain or understand this increase **Population Growth Theory: Malthus** - **Thomas Robert Malthus** - **[Basic idea of Malthus' argument:]** food supply correlates with population growth - **[Time periods:]** 1. Food \> population (more food than people) 2. Food = Population (equal amount of food to people) 3. Food \< Population (more people than food) - Two possible solutions: - ***Preventative checks on population:*** - E.g., delayed marriage, fertility reduction, etc. - ***Positive checks on population*** - E.g., war, famine, disease (events that should adjust population curve and lessen the population) - Malthus was not correct because he failed to consider the increased agricultural productivity and widespread contraceptive use - Paul Ehrlich and many other catastrophists believe we will not be able to control population **Population growth Theory: Demographic Transition Theory** - **Demographic changes (birth and death rates) are associated with stage of economic development** - Population changes overtime - Population change is driven by variations in CDR and CBR - Birth and death rates vary with economic development ***Stage 1*** (Pre-Modern): High birth rate; high death rate ***Stage 2*** (Urban and Industrializing): High birth rate, declining death rate ***Stage 3*** (Mature Industrial): Declining birth rate, low death rate ***Stage 4*** (Post-Industrial): Low birth rate; low death rate - This model fits MDW well, and much of the LDW resembled stage 3 **Population Structure** - Connections between these theories and our understanding of population dynamics via population structure - **[Population pyramid:]** a diagrammatic representation of the age and sex composition of a population - **[Expanding population:]** fertility rates are high - **[Diminishing populations:]** Fertility rates are low WEEK 6: POPULATION MIGRATION & REFUGEES --------------------------------------- **Lecture 11: Population Migration (4.10)** **[Population Migration:]** the long-term or permanent relocation of an individual or group of people from one area to another **[Immigration]** = movement into a country/region **[Emigration]** = movement out of a country/region - Different spatial contexts: - ***International (global)*** -- e.g., China to Canada - ***Inter-regional (national/regional)*** -- e.g., Ontario to Alberta - ***Inter-urban (local)*** -- e.g., Mississauga to Hamilton - ***Intra-urban (local)*** -- e.g., one house to neighbourhood to another (residential mobility) - Key issues of interest: Migration - Cultural, political, & economic characteristics - Who are the migrants? (ethnicity, race, religion) - Number of migrants (flow) - Distance moved (how far are they moving?) - Political boundaries crossed (provincial vs. national) - Causes of migration (what influences one's decision to migrate) **Population Migration** - **Redistribution of population from over-populated regions to under-populated regions** - E.g., North Africa to Europe; East Asia to North America; Latin America to North America, etc. - Many 'core' countries, depend on immigration to sustain population and economic growth - Canada's immigrant flow overtime (peak in 1910s; lowest in 1930s; 2022 with the HIGHEST EVER) - Countries with most immigrants to Canada in 2021: India, Philippines, China, Europe, U.S. - **Net Migration: Immigration -- Emigration (I-E)** - ***Destination countries*** (net pos migration): typically, low natural population growth, HIGH economic and social development; DESIRABLE TO IMMIGRATE TO (e.g., core countries) - ***Source countries*** (net neg migration): typically, high natural population growth, low economic and social development (e.g., peripheral and semi-peripheral) **Why People Migrate: Theory** - Why do people migrate, and how to make sense of this migration? 1. **[Push-Pull Logic:]** a. **Push:** being in an undesirable place (local economic crises, cultural or political oppression, environmental or political crises) b. **Pull:** aware of a more desirable place (economic opportunities, family reunification, freedoms, environment and amenities, based on perception\*) c. **\*\*KEY FACTOR:** the new location is better than the previous one (the degree of perceived improvement influences the volume and flow of migration (i.e., Ireland Potato Famine) Push-Pull Logical -- 3 Main Forms: a. *Economic:* a consequence of differences in wages, a threat to survival exists due to inadequate food supply, shelter, etc. b. *Political/Cultural:* threat to survival due to political or religious beliefs, desire for different way of life c. *Environmental:* movement that results from differences in local/regional environmental conditions (i.e., severe weather, desertification, pollution, etc. 2. **[The Ravenstein Laws:]** a series of generalizations drawn from observations of migration behaviour as illustrated in historical census data (Box 4.8) d. *Short distance:* most migrations are of short distance (friction of distance) e. *Intermediate steps:* migration usually involves intermediate steps (moveing to different destination countries) f. *Men vs. women and families:* (more men migrate internationally than women, and most international migrants are adults without families g. *Rural to urban:* intra-regional migration is usually characterized by rural (agricultural) to urban (industrial) migration d. Prevalent in LDW (Brazil, China) h. *Large cities:* migrants are drawn to large centres of economic activity (e.g., large cities) e. Applies to regional AND international migrants **Types of Migration** 1. **[Free (Voluntary)]** - Migration from one country to another - Historical examples (people moving from Europe to North America) - Current examples (people moving from Canada to U.S. for work; China to Canada for school; Hong Kong to Canada for reunification) - Free immigration today is thwarted in many cases because of immigration laws (barriers that restrict the free movement of people) - Limits and criteria - Canada uses a Point System to determine likelihood hat you are admitted into Canada - Restrictive countries: policy/laws and public opinion (e.g., Japan, Trump) - Much migration today takes place WITHIN rather than BETWEEN countries (e.g., from B.C. to Ontario) 1. ***Free (Voluntary) Migration: Case Study*** - Waves of European migrants in the 19^th^ Century in search of a better life - Most went to North America, South America, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, etc. - 1800-1950: \~30-35m Europeans migrated to the U.S., and \~5m to Canada - Migrants created transplanted cultural communities elsewhere - E.g., Norwegian communities in Prairies in Canada - Little Italy in Canada - Population pressures were relieved in Europe and opportunities were fulfilled in the New World 2. **[Forced Migration ]** - ***Slavery:*** a long history -- Greeks, Romans, Colonial European powers used slaves to produce food, perform essential services, etc. - E.g., African slaves forcibly moved from Western Africa to Southern U.S. to engage in agricultural activities - E.g., African Slaves (from China to plantations in Malaysia to produce rubber) - ***Non-slavery:*** Indonesia, China, Siberia, etc. - Indonesian Transmigration Program (1950-2000) - People moved forcibly from Java, Indonesia to other parts of Indonesia to help overpopulation 3. **[Impelled Migration ]** - Movement where choice is limited - i.e., in the face of persecution, famine, natural disaster, war , etc. - If I stay, I am likely to die - Sometimes it is hard to distinguish whether choices to flee country are made freely or if they are impelled 4. **[Illegal Migration ]** - Migration in violation of local immigration laws, or continued residence beyond the permissible time-period - Estimating the number of illegal immigrants is difficult - Illegal immigration is a major political issue ***Illegal Migration: Case Studies*** - Mexico-U.S. -- 10M illegal immigrants in the U.S. (the border wall) - North and Saharan Africans into Europe: dangerous trek across the Sahara Desert and Mediterranean Sea - South Asians into Australia: many migrants from Indonesia, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Myanmar have tried to illegally enter Australia **Lecture 12: Refugees (5.5)** **Defining Refugees: The UNHCR** - ***Refugees are a particular form of impelled migrant*** - **[Refugee:]** an individual forced to flee their home country in the face of persecution (religious, ethnic, political, etc.) or other threats to safety, such as war, natural disaster, or political instability - **[International Refugee Convention (1951):]** someone who is unable or unwilling to return to their country of origin owing to a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group, or political opinion - Key distinction between refugees and migrants: CHOICE - **[Refugees:]** flee for their safety with LITTLE CHOICE - **[Migrants:]** move for a variety of reasons and some may return to their home after a period of time (e.g., employment opportunities) - Migrants typically plan for their migration and bring some possessions - Many migrate because their homes have become dangerous or difficult to live in, as they be fleeing unrest, famine, drought, economic crises***, BUT UNLESS THEY ARE IN DANGER OF CONFLICT OR PERSECUTION, THEY ARE NOT CONSIDERED REFUGEES*** **The Modern Refugee System** - **[Refugee system:]** post WWII when millions were uprooted by war - Hundreds of millions since then... - **Historic:** - South Asia: 16M Muslims and Hindus/Sikhs in India, Pakistan/Bangladesh following post-colonial portioning in 1947 - Southeastern Asia: 2M Vietnamese 'boat people' in the 1970s and 1980s - Sub-Saharan Africa: Millions of ethnic refugees following genocides in Rwanda, Burundi - Europe: Yugoslavia and the Balkans in the 1980s and 1990s - ***Contemporary:*** various crises - E.g., Syria, Venezuela, Myanmar, etc. - **[Most refugee crises:]** prompted by civil war, political unrest, ethnic conflict, and severe economic crises or social inequalities - 2024: UNHCR: \~120M people of concern to UNHCR - Refugees: \~45m from places like Syria, Afghanistan, Palestine, Myanmar, Venezuela, Ukraine, etc. - **[Internally Displaces Person (IDP):]** an individual forced to flee their home in the face of persecution (religious, ethnic, political, etc.) or other threats to safety (war, natural disaster, political instability, etc.); UNLIKE A REFUGEE, THEY DO NOT LEAVE THEIR HOME COUNTRY - They seek refuge in another part of their country - Current places of greatest concern: Sudan, South Sudan, Yemen, Somalia, DR of Congo, Syria, Palestine, Lebanon, Afghanistan, Pakistan, etc. **Refugees: Local and Long-Distance Migration** - Typically, refugees make one of two 'choices' 1. ***[A short-term]*** (and local) move until domestic circumstances change a. E.g., Venezuela to Colombia, Myanmar to Bangladesh, Syria to Lebanon, etc. 2. ***A permanent*** (and long distance) move for a better life b. E.g., Syria to Canada ***Case Study: Venezuela*** - A political and economic crisis: poor-governance, hyperinflation, violence, crime, hunger, disease, and a refugee crisis - 7.2M refugees: Colombia, Peru, Chile, Ecuador, Argentina, Brazil, etc. - Capacity of neighbouring countries to help is limited (low development) - Journey to U.S. via Darien Gap: remote and dangerous journey ***Case Study: Myanmar (Burma)*** - ***[Rohingya:]*** a religious minority in Myanmar (Burma) - Since independence from the British in 1948, the Rohingya have been denied citizenship and persecuted - Mass migration out of Rakhine state (Box 5.5) into Bangladesh - UN: ethnic genocide (murdering of Rohingya minority by Myanmar authorities) - Myanmar: fighting a terrorist insurgency (viewed Rohingya as a terrorist group) - 1.4M fled to camps in neighbouring countries - 3.5M internally displaces ***Case Study: Syria*** - Arab Spring (2010-11): a series of uprising against oppressive governments across the Arab world seeking social, political, and economic reform (e.g., Tunisia, Egypt) - Government change -- some government leaders were replaced - Some social and economic reforms were introduced - Little has changed -- most countries are still under authoritarian rule - Syria: protests against the government (President Al-Assad) - Civil war -- the country descended into full-scale and multi-dimensional civil war - Humanitarian crisis: more than 5.5M refugees and 6.7M internally displaces persons - Refugee camps in neighbouring countries - Most displaced Syrians remain within Syra as IDPs ***Case Study: North Africa & Sub-Saharan Africa*** - Many other countries in Middle East, North Africa and Sub-Saharan Africa have circumstances precipitating refugee migration - E.g., poverty, conflict, instability (Sudan 2023-24) - Migration towards Europe - Perilous journey across the Sahara Desert and Mediterranean Sea - Human traffickers exploit the desperation of many migrants **Refugee Solutions** - **[Voluntary repatriation:]** where refugees voluntarily return home - **[Local settlement/integration:]** settlement in a neighbouring country - **[Resettlement:]** the acceptance, by more distant countries, of refugees (many countries are reluctant to accept refugees) WEEK 7: POPULATION HEALTH & URBAN LIVING ---------------------------------------- **Lecture 13: Population Health & Healthcare (4.11)** **Introduction** - While each of our local geographies are subtly different, they are generally similar, but these local geographies are radically difference from those in many other parts of the world - While our individual health status varies (subtly) between each one of us, our broader-scale health risks are largely the same; at the same time, these risks are different from those in many other parts of the world - Our environmental and health exposure - Our access to life-sustaining resources - Our access to healthcare **Changing Perspectives of Health & Illness** - **[Medical geography (traditional)]** - Study of the spatial context (patterns and processes) of disease - **[Health geography (today)]** - Study the spatial contexts of health and well-being - What is the difference? - **[Traditionally, health]** = absence of disease (WHO) - **[Today, health]** = state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being (WHO revised) **Geographical Concepts: Applied to Population Health** - **[The Four D's of Health Geography:]** 1. ***Distribution:*** spatial arrangements of health and disease within an area (e.g., obesity in U.S.; birth of medical geography and epidemiology John Snow and Cholera) 2. ***Diffusion:*** the spread of health and disease over space and through time (e.g., diffusion of HIV/AIDS in Africa; diffusion of Cholera in North America) 3. ***Determinants:*** factors affecting health status (e.g., income, behavioural factors, social environment, physical environment, genetics, etc.) 4. ***Delivery:*** provision of health care services a. **[Health Care:]** the maintenance or improvement of human health through prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of physical or mental illness or injury i. E.g., public vs private vs traditional vs acillary (dental, chiro, etc.) ii. E.g., quality of care and cost of care (high-tech diagnosis vs low-tech prevention and health promotion) **Concepts in Population Health: Epidemics & Pandemics** - **[Epidemic:]** a rapid increase (beyond what is normal) of relatively short duration in the number of cases of a disease within a population - E.g., Influenza, Salmonella, Ebola - Spatially isolated, short period of time - **[Pandemic:]** an outbreak of disease that is of greater scope and scale (a whole country or region or even the world) than an epidemic - Wide geographic area affecting a high proportion of the population - E.g., Plague, COVID, HIV/AIDS, etc. - ***1918: Spanish Flue (influenza): H1N1 strain*** - 500M people infected - Between 50-100M people died (3-5% of the population) - 55,000 deaths in Canada (60,000 Canadians died in WWI) - ***2020 COVID: Coronovirus*** - Cases and deaths: - World: 250M cases and 5M deaths - Canada: 1.7M cases and 28,000 deaths - Life-Altering responses: closures, lockdowns, behavioural changes, etc. - **[Epidemiology:]** the study of the incidence, distribution, and control of diseases in human populations - **[Epidemiological Transition:]** a transition in the dominant causes of death in a population overtime, typically exemplified by a relative decline in infectious diseases and an increase in degenerative or chronic diseases - ***Infectious disease:*** a disease that spreads from human to human via bacteria or viruses (communicable disease) - ***Degenerative or chronic disease:*** a disease that is long-lasting and results from gradual degeneration of the body (diabetes, cancer, heart disease) - **Epidemiological Transition Theory:** a descriptive generalization - Five Ages characterized by the dominant causes of death in a population 1. ***Age of Pestilence & Famine:*** a. Dominated by infectious and parasitic diseases (cholera) and regular periods of famine (e.g., Black Death Plague in 1300s) 2. ***Age of Receding Pandemic:*** b. Starting to control infectious disease through public health, sanitation, etc, 3. ***Age of Degenerative Diseases*** c. The emergence of degenerative disease and chronic diseases associated with aging d. As people live longer, chronic diseases become COD 4. ***Age of Delayed Degenerative Diseases*** e. Extension of life through medical care and prescription medicine, allowing people to live to very old ages 5. ***A New Age? The Return of Infectious Diseases*** f. The possible return of infectious/communicable diseases such as anti-biotic resistant microbe, swine flu etc. **Lecture 14: The Emergence of Urban Living (9.1-9.3)** **Introduction: Urban Studies/Geography & Urban Planning** - **Cities are fundamental human institutions: Cities are** - **Locations of innovation (economic, political, social life)** - Economic trade, artistic creativity, political decisions - Home of a growing majority of the world's population - Marked by social/cultural diversity, and contrasts of wealth and poverty - Uneven development - Facing an array of planning and environmental challenges - Through Urban studies, we attempt to understanding cities and city life: - Function: how cities function - Issues: current/future social, political, and environmental issues - Planning: how cities are (or should be) planned **An Urban World: Patterns & Trends** - **[Urbanization:]** the spread and growth of cities; an increasing proportion of a population living in urban areas - **Urban population:** TODAY 55% of world population lives in urban areas - Urbanization, industrialization, and economic development - **Urban and Rural Population:** - Population growth will be seen in urban areas (including rural-urban migration) - Urban areas of LDW (including LeastDW) - Most of this growth will be in urban areas of the LDW and LeastDW (India, Nigeria) - Urbanization: a temporal and spatial process - Change over time: less than 10% (of 1B) in urban areas (1800) to more than 50% (of 8B) in 200 years - Spatial variation **The Emergence & Growth of Cities: A Brief History** - Emergence of cities: where, when, and why? - **Region of first cities:** Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq) - Followed closely by other areas: URBAN HEARTHS - **[Hearth:]** the area where a particular cultural trait originates - **Emergence of cities:** approx. 3500 BCE **What explains the emergence of cities?** - **Agricultural Surplus Theory** - **[Agricultural surplus:]** agricultural production that exceeds the sustenance needs of the producer and is sold to or exchanged with others A: **[Foraging]** (nomadic, hunter-gathering) societies (thousands of years ago) B: **[Agricultural societies]**: Agricultural Revolution - Agricultural Revolution: the gradual transition of human subsistence beginning around 12,000 years ago from dependence on foraging (hunting and gathering) to food production through plant and animal domestication - Permanent settlements (people are no longer nomadic as they domesticate animals and grow drops) - Further discoveries led to greater harvests and a surplus of food C: **[Urban societies]** (**5,500 years ago**) - **[Labour specialization]**: surplus of food led to a 2^nd^ key transformation - Production (manufacturing): tools, goods - Services (admin, religion, military, education) - **[Agglomeration economies:]** clustering of goods and services - **THE FIRST CITIES: 5500 YEARS AGO** - **This emergence of cities represents the first urban revolution** - Different forms of settlements emerged (urban settlement) - New forms of economic activity - New forms of social organization (hierarchal societies, religion, monarchies) - New social institutions (religion, education) - People relied on others for their survival - Sedentary vs nomadic - A small but growing population now lived in towns or cities - **[Towns and cities:]** between 5500 years ago and 1700s - Small and compact - Local and regional trade, education, religion, governance - Level of urbanization: low (20%) - Acropolis, agora, forum, entrepot (pg. 367-371) D: **[Industrial societies: Industrial Revolution]** - Critical changes in methods of production and societal way of life Urbanism): explosive growth of cities - Agricultural productivity - Mass production - Global trade - Demographic change - Rural to urban migration - Level of urbanization rapidly increases (10%-50%) - Emergence of larger industrial cities (Manchester) - Diffusion from England to Europe to North America - **These new industrial cities represent the second urban revolution** (social/cultural and economic transformation) - Proportion of people living in cities - Proportion of people working in agriculture vs. factories (more people working in factories) - Size of urban places (small cities to large industrial cities) - Homogenous vs heterogenous societies **Concepts & Definitions: Urban Area** - **[Urban/Urban Area:]** the spatial extent of the built-up area surrounding and including an incorporated municipality, such as a city; typically assessed by some combination of population size, population density and the nature of residents' employment (refers to towns, cities, suburbs) - **[Two criteria ]** - ***Demographic criteria:*** exceeds certain population size/density - ***Economic criteria:*** urban economic activity - Definitions of urban areas vary around the world - E.g., Canada: population greater than 1000; density greater than 400km2 - **[Urban areas are villages, towns or cities:]** these are all the same but vary in size and complexity and political status - ***Nucleated settlements:*** with distinct residential and non-residential areas - ***Central business district:*** 'downtown' of a city - **[City:]** a specific term used to refer to a particular form of an urban area; a legally incorporated self-governing unit; an inhabited place of greater size, population, or importance than a town or village - **[Suburb:]** a residential or mixed-use (residential and employment) area on the periphery of the city, displaying some degree of homogeneity in terms of economic status, socio-cultural characteristics or built form - **[Metropolitan area:]** a region comprising two or more functionally connected urban areas and the less densely populated (or built up) areas between then (e.g., Toronto, Mississauga, Oakville, Richmond Hill, etc.,) - **[Census Metropolitan Area (CMAs):]** e.g., Toronto, Montreal, Vancouver, Ottawa - One or more adjacent urban areas/municipalities - Total population more than 100,000/population of urban core is greater than 50,000 - **[Census Agglomerations (Cas):]** e.g., Bellville, Stratford - Same as CMA but the urban core population is greater than 10,000 WEEK 8: URBAN LAND USE ---------------------- **Lecture 15: Urban Growth & Urbanization: Megacities & Global Cities (9.1; 9.4-9.5)** **Differentiating Urbanization & Urban Growth** - **[Urban growth:]** an increase in the absolute size of an urban area/city - Number of people -- increase in the number of people living in an urban area - Sometimes also an increase in the total area of land occupied by the urban area - **[Urbanization:]** the spread and growth of cities; an increasing proportion of a population living in urban areas (cities and towns) - A fundamental re-organization of human society (rural to urban living) - E.g., increase from 75%-80% proportion of people living in urban areas - **[De-urbanization:]** becoming less urbanized through a decreasing proportion of population living in urban areas - Illustrating urbanization and urban growth (GRAPHIC IN SLIDE\*\*) - **[Urban growth:]** the population of each of the two cities has increased (number of people) - **[Urbanization:]** the urban system has become more urban (from 33%-66%) - These two phenomena do not always occur at the same time... - Urban growth without urbanization - Urbanization without urban growth - Deurbanization **Patterns in the More & Less Developed Worlds: Urbanization** - **MDW is highly urbanized (\~80%) and there is little variability** - **LDW is more diverse and less urbanized (\~50%)** - Some areas resemble the MDW (e.g., South America) - Some areas are much less urbanized (e.g., LeastDW \~34%) - Urban growth rates: vary by level of development - There are regional variations too (e.g., UGR in East Africa, Central Africa, North Africa, etc.) **City Size & Megacities** - Levels of urbanization are generally higher in the MDW (\~80%) - **The majority of very large cities are in the LDW** - These large cities are growing quickly (high UGRs) - E.g., Lagos, Nigeria; Dhaka, Bangladesh - How many large cities are there and how large are they? - According to DEMOGRAPHICA (2019), the number of large cities (by population size) are: - 269 cities over 2M; 87 cities over 5M; 38 cities over 10M; and 11 cities over 20M people - The UN (2015) says there are only 5 cities over 20M people - There is discrepancy in how many large cities these sources think there are because of how we define a city varies - Most experts suggest that Tokyo is the largest city in the world; this is NOT universally accepted - Other cities sometime included: NYC, Seoul, Chonqing, Shanghai, Delhi, Mexico City, etc. - **Urban areas and cities can be defined based on:** - ***Political/legal definition (municipality)*** - ***Urban agglomeration (metropolitan area)*** - ***Sphere of influence (urban region)*** - E.g., city/municipality (Toronto); Urban Agglomeration (CMA); Sphere of influence (Greater Toronto Area) - **[Megacity:]** a metropolitan area with a population of more than 10 million - **Most megacities today are in the LDW (Table 9.5)** - E.g., China (Shanghai, Beijing), India (Delhi, Mumbai), Bangladesh , Pakistan, Southeast Asia, Africa (Lagos, Cairo), Latin America (Mexico City, Sao Paulo) - MDW -- 5 megacities (NYC, LA) - Growth of megacities - Rapidly expanding population base via - Rural to urban migration - Natural increase - Economic attraction - Most rural people move to LARGE CITIES - Megacities: 2018 and 2030 - \~7 of 43 megacities in 2030 will be in the MDW **Urban Systems: Central Places** - Cities function together as an economic, political, cultural, and environmental **[system:]** a set of interrelated components or objects linked together to form a unified whole - In an urban system, the whole can be seen as a region, a country, or even the entire world, and cities are the interrelated components or object - The relationship between cities in an urban system can be understood through examining their respective functions - **[Central Place Theory:]** a theory to explain the spatial distribution of urban centres with respect to their size and function - Within urban systems, cities are organized in a hierarchy: in each, there are few cities at the top and many at the bottom: 1. ***Rank Size Distribution:*** a descriptive regularity among cities in an urban system; the numerical relationship between city size and rank in an urban system (**RANK-SIZE RULE**) a. E.g., US, Germany, and Japan follow this pattern b. Second largest city is ½ as large as the largest city 2. ***Primate City:*** the largest city in an urban system, usually the capital, which dominates its political, economic, and social life; a city that is **MORE THAN TWICE THE SIZE OF THE NEXT-LARGEST CITY IN THE SYSTEM** c. E.g., Paris, France d. Many former colonies have primate cities as the Europea power **Global Cities:** - For the global urban system, we can think about global cities - **[Global city:]** a city that is an important node in the global economy; a dominant city in the global urban hierarchy; sometimes referred to as a world city - **Dimensions of global city:** - ***Economic:*** corporate HQs (TNC); financial institutions - ***Political:*** national capitals, supranational corporations (E.g., UN meeting spot) - ***Cultural:*** Olympics, World Cup, media production - ***Environmental:*** levels of pollution, livability - **Many rankings of world cities** - Globalization & World Cities (GaWC): - **Alpha ++:** NYC, London - **Alpha +:** Paris, Dubai, Tokyo, Shanghai, Beijing, Hong Kong, Singapore - Kearney Hierarchy - Ranks based on **business activity, human capital, information exchange, cultural experience, political engagement** **Lecture 16: Urban Structures & Urban Land Use (10.1)** - **Six categories of urban land uses:** - Residential: houses - Industrial: where things are produced - Commercial: offices, banks, firms, retail - Institutional: universities, churches - Transportation/infrastructure: roads, sewers - Public space: parks 1. **[Residential areas:]** among the most complex (diverse) components of the urban land uses a. **50% of urban area** b. From inner-city to suburban; rich to poor; new to old; etc. 2. **[Industrial areas]** c. **5-10% of urban area** d. Heavy (traditional) industrial production (Hamilton north end) e. Light, innovative production, high-tech food processing i. E.g., McMaster Innovation Park, airport lands, etc. 3. **[Commercial ]** f. **5% of urban area** g. Offices ii. Head office (downtown); back offices (suburban); regional offices (edge cities) h. Retail iii. Store front shopping, suburban malls, retail power centres 4. **[Institutional areas:] 5-10% of urban area** i. Gov buildings, universities, hospitals, schools, churches 5. **[Transportation/infrastructure:]** **25% of urban area** j. Roads, highways, airports, parking lots 6. **[Public areas:]** **5-10%** k. Parks, civic plazas, areas, vacant land, etc. **Urban Land Uses: Urban Structure** - **[Urban structure:]** the arrangement of land uses in cities; related to urban morphology - Structure is shaped by competition for territory and location - ***Desirability of locations:*** competition for desirable locations - ***Desirability determined by accessibility:*** a variable quality of a location, expressing the **opportunity for interaction with other locations** - Real-estate proverb: location, location, location - Greater accessibility translates into greater desirability - Ability/willingness to pay (people are willing to pay more for more desirable locations) - Different land users have different abilities/willingness to pay (commercial vs residential; Tims vs individual's ability to pay for piece of property) **Urban Structure/Morphology** - **Principle of bid-rent curve** and land values (PIC ON PHONE) - At the core of this principle of bid-rent curves are land values - **[Land value:]** ability or willingness to pay for land - Linked to accessibility and amount of space of each piece of property - **Trade-off:** accessibility vs. space - Central locations (close to CBD): more accessibility; less space - Peripheral locations (farther from CBD): less accessibility; more space - There are many land users and each have different values of this trade-off (some prioritize accessibility while others care more about space) - **EXAMPLE: RESIDENTIAL DEVELOPMENT** - Downtown: accessibility and land value is HIGH (build vertically) - Midtown: lower density than downtown - Suburban: lower density than midtown - Distance suburban: lowest density **Three Models to explain the structure of North American cities:** - **[A: Concentric Zone Model (Burgess)]** - Residential neighbourhood associated with particular social groups 1. ***Spatial relationship between SES and distance from CBD*** a. Greater distance from CBD = greater wealth b. Trade off in cost and time of commuting 2. ***Spatial relationship between groups based on ethnic or racial identity; influenced by segregation and congregation*** c. Immigrant and racialized minorities concentrated in inner-most areas - Concentric zones of neighbourhoods - Cities structured into concentric zones each with neighbourhoods comprised of people of different SES - 5 zones with city growing outwards from the centre: - **CBD:** retail offices, gov - **Zone in transition:** factories, warehouses, homes of working poor and recent immigrants - **Zone of working-class homes** - **Middle class** residences - **Affluent commuter suburbs** (richest) - **[B: Sector Model (Hoyt)]** - City differentiated into sectors based on land values - **[C: Multiple Nuclei Model (Harris & Ullman)]** - Many distinct functional clusters (nuclei) at various locations - Additional models exist for European, Latin American, Sub-Saharan, African, and Asian Cities **Urban Theory** - ***Jane Jacobs:*** higher density, walkable, mixed-use cities - ***Richard Florida:*** urban regeneration through placemaking and urban entrepreneurialism - ***Neil Smith:*** role of capital and culture in the gentrification of urban residential neighbourhoods WEEK 9: URBAN ISSUES -------------------- **Lecture 17: Urban Issues: Urban Stratification & Gentrification (10.2-10.6; 10.8)** **Urban Form: Key Features of the City** - **[Central Business District:]** the social, cultural, commercial, and political centre of the city; usually characterized by high-rise office and residential towers, key municipal government buildings, and civic amenities (known as 'downtown') - **Much of the rest of the city is residential** - **[Neighbourhoods:]** a part of the city that displays some internal homogeneity regarding type of housing; may be characterized by a relatively uniform income level and/or ethnic identity, and usually reflects certain shared social values - Neighbourhoods are comprised on: - People: families, individuals, etc. with characteristics of income, culture, ethnicity, etc. - Residences: houses, apartments, etc. (can be large, small, expensive, cheap, new, old, etc.) - Other: schools, rec centres, businesses - Cities are comprised of many different sized and shaped neighbourhoods - **[Suburb:]** a residential mixed-use (residential and employment) area on the periphery of the city; typically displaying some degree of homogeneity in terms of economic status, socio-cultural characteristics, or built form - Suburbs may not only be on the periphery - As cities expand, there are inner city and outer city suburbs **Housing and Stratification: The Housing Market** - Residential areas are mo

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