EDRE 101 Reviewers PDF

EDRE 101 Reviewer Introduction to Educational Research Research - “Careful, systematic, patient study and investigation in some field of knowledge” (Fraenkel et al, 2015, p. 7) Scientific Method (Fraenkel et al, 2015, p. 6) 1. Identifying a problem 2. Clarifying the Problem 3. Determining...

EDRE 101 Reviewer Introduction to Educational Research Research - “Careful, systematic, patient study and investigation in some field of knowledge” (Fraenkel et al, 2015, p. 7) Scientific Method (Fraenkel et al, 2015, p. 6) 1. Identifying a problem 2. Clarifying the Problem 3. Determining the information needed and how to obtain it 4. Organizing the information 5. Interpreting the results Research Process 1. Identify a specific problem 2. Write down specific research questions 3. Conduct the literature review 4. Implement your research study 5. Analyze your data 6. Interpret your data 7. Draw the conclusion Types of Research 1. Basic Research a. clarifying underlying processes, with the hypothesis usually expressed as a theory b. finding answers to question 2. Applied Research a. examining the effectiveness of particular educational practices b. finding solutions to problems General Types of Research 1. Descriptive Studies a. Describe a given state of affairs as fully and carefully as possible 2. Associational Research a. Investigate possible relationships to understand phenomena more completely 3. Intervention Studies a. Is expected to influence one or more outcomes b. To assess c. Contribute to general knowledge by confirming (or failing to confirm) theoretical predictions Variables in Research Variable - any characteristic or quality that varies among the members of a particular group. Constant - any characteristic or quality that is the same for all members of a particular group. Types of Variable Independent variable - the cause, variate ○ Independent variables are also called explanatory variables or predictor variables in multilevel modeling analysis. (Kreft & Leeuw, n.d.) Explanatory Variable is any variable that explains the response variable and is often called an independent variable or predictor variable. Dependent variable - the result, criterion ○ is presumed to be affected by one or more independent variables. object of the investigation. also known as response variable in multilevel analysis ○ The response variable is the outcome of a study. A variable you would be interested in predicting or forecasting and often called a dependent variable or predicted variable. When there is grouping in the study, the independent variable is the basis on which grouping is made. The dependent variable is what is measured after grouping at the end of the study. Any variable that is not quantitative is categorical. 1. Nominal variables - categorical variables that do not have any intrinsic ordering or ranking. 2. Ordinal variables - Ordinal data is data that can be ranked or ordered. Continuous variables or quantitative variables can be classified into two categories: 1. Interval – does not have true zero point a. e.g. Temperature, IQ score 2. Ratio – has true zero point a. e.g. test scores, weight Major Types of Research 1. Qualitative Research a. ”exploring and understanding the meaning individuals or groups ascribe to a social or human problem” i. Words ii. Multiple Realities iii. Understanding situation and events iv. Immersed v. Ethnography vi. Applicability b. Emerging Methods c. Open-ended questions d. Interview data, observation data, document data and audio visual data e. Text and image analysis f. Themes, patterns and interpretations 2. Quantitative Research a. ”testing objective theories by examining the relationship among variables” i. Numbers ii. Single Reality iii. Relationships iv. Detached Observer v. Prototype:Experimental vi. Generalizability b. Predetermined c. Instrument based questions d. Performane data, attitude data, observational data and census data e. Statistical Analysis and Interpretation 3. Mixed Methods Research a. ” an approach to inquiry that combines or associates both qualitative and quantitative forms” b. Both predetermined and emerging methods c. Both open and closed ended questions d. Multiple forms of data drawing on all possibilities e. Statistical and text analysis f. Across databases interpretation Qualitative Research Designs 1. Narrative Research a. “researcher studies the lives of individuals and asks one or more individuals to provide stories about their lives” b. Sources: i. Interview ii. Observations through shadowing iii. Documents iv. Artifacts 2. Historical Research a. “systematic collection and evaluation of data to describe, explain, and thereby understand actions or events that occurred sometime in the past” b. Purposes: i. Awareness of the past – learn from the failures and successes ii. Things done in the past-applicability to the present iii. Assist in prediction iv. Test hypotheses- trends/ relationships v. Understanding of present educational practices & policies c. Catrgories of Sources i. Documents ii. Numerical Records iii. Oral statements iv. Relics d. Types of Sources i. Primary Source – direct witness to the event ii. Secondary Source- obtained the description from someone else 3. Case Study Research a. “explores a real-life, contemporary bounded system or multiple bounded systems over time, through detailed, in-depth data collection involving multiple sources of information and reports a case description and case themes” b. Case studies are based on “case” as unit of analysis i. Individuals ii. Organizations iii. Processes iv. Programs v. Neighborhoods vi. Institutions vii. Events c. Types i. Single instrumental case study 1. “a research question, a puzzlement, a need for general understanding, and feel that we may get insight into the question by studying a particular case”  ii.Collective / Multiple Case Study 1. “the one issue or concern is again selected, but the inquirer selects multiple case studies to illustrate the issue” iii. Intrinsic Case Study 1. “the focus is on its case itself because the case presents an unusual or unique situation” d. When to Use i. the focus of the study is to answer “how” and “why” questions; ii. you cannot manipulate the behaviour of those involved in the study; iii. you want to cover contextual conditions because you believe they are relevant to the phenomenon under study; iv. the boundaries are not clear between the phenomenon and context. e. Sources i. Documentation ii. Archival records iii. Interviews iv. Direct observations v. Participant observation vi. Physical artifacts 4. Phenomenology Research a. “describes the common meaning for several individuals of their lived experiences of a concept or phenomenon” b. Examples: i. Loneliness ii. Anger iii. Insomnia iv. Grief v. Olympic winner c. Key Characteristics i. Rich, detailed descriptions of the phenomenon 1. Presents “how” the participants experienced the phenomenon d. Types i. Hermeneutic Phenomenology 1. “oriented toward lived experience (phenomenology) and interpreting the ‘texts’ of life (hermeneutics)” (van Manen, as cited in Creswell & Poth, 2018, p. 126) ii. Transcendental Phenomenology 1. “focused less on the interpretations of the researcher and more on a description of the experiences of participants” e. Research Process i. Phenomenological Reduction - researcher has open mind and listen in a receptive manner ii. Bracketing/epoche - researcher set aside any preconceived knowledge/ beliefs  iii. Imaginative variation – uncover the structural themes from the textural descriptions produced from Phenomenological reduction iv. Develop a statement from the composite and structural descriptions that reveals the essences of the phenomenon from a variety of perspectives f. Data Sources i. Phenomenological Interviews 1. in-depth interview 2. Open-ended questions ii. Interview schedule 1. opening questions were the same for each participant 2. Follow-up questions based on the participant’s response 5. Ethnography a. “study the meaning of the behavior, the language, and the interaction among members of the culture-sharing group” b. Concepts i. Culture – behavior & ideas ii. Holistic perspective – group’s history, social structure, politics, religious beliefs, symbols, rituals, & environment iii. Contextualization –what was seen & heard was put into a larger perspective iv. Emic perspective – insider’s perspective of reality v. Etic perspective – external objective perspective on reality vi. Thick description – great detail of what was seen & heard vii. Member checking – participant’s review what the researchers have written viii. Critical colleagues – research team ix. Nonjudgmental orientation – refrain from making value judgments about unfamiliar practices c. Data Sources i. Participant Observation 1. Field Notes a. Field jottings – quick notes b. Field diary – personal statement of researcher’s feelings, opinions, & perceptions c. Field log – running account of how researchers plan to spend their time compared to how they actually spend it d. Reflective field notes- researcher’s thoughts of what they observe 2. Interviewing 6. Grounded Theory a. “the inquirer generates a general explanation (a theory) of a process, an action, or an interaction shaped by the views of a large number of participants” b. Characteristics i. Process or an action that has distinct steps or phases over time  ii. Develop a theory of the process or action in the end iii. Memoing iv. Data and analysis are undertaken simultaneously and iteratively v. Inductive procedures c. Data Sources i. Interviewing ii. Observations iii. Documents iv. Group Discussions Research Sampling Basic Types of Sampling 1. Probability a. to the selection of a sample from a population, when this selection is based on the principle of randomization, that is, random selection or chance 2. Nonprobability a. Purposive/Purposeful i. intentionally selecting participants based on their characteristics, knowledge, experiences, or some other criteria. ii. Selection Criteria 1. Extreme case / unique sample a. Unique b. Atypical c. Unusual i. e.g. a bar top-notch law student with a learning disability 2. Homogenous sample a. all the members possess a certain trait or characteristics i. e.g. a group of fresh graduate students who passed the bar exam 3. Theoretical Sample a. ongoing sample selection process b. evolving process guided by the emerging theory i. e.g. selecting a group of tribal elders to assess the relevance of Piagetian theory to the education of Native Americans 4. Snowball sample / Chain / Network Sample a. one selected as the need arises during the conduct of a study i. e.g. a PhD holder graduate student refers another PhD holder graduate student who can best share his/ her experiences about the study b. Convenience  i. recruiting individuals primarily because they are available, willing, or easy to access or contact on a practical level. ii. A group of individuals who are available for the study Sample Size - Minimum Number of Participants 1. Case Study a. 1 / 4-5 Participants 2. Ethnography a. Single Culture Sharing Groups 3. Phenomenology a. 1 - 325 Participants 4. Grounded Theory a. 20 - 30 Participants 5. Narrative Research a. 1 or 2 Participants Instrumentation Data - the kinds of information researchers obtain on the subjects of their research Instrument - the device to collect data Instrumentation - the whole process of preparing to collect data Involves ○ selection or design of the instruments ○ procedures ○ conditions under which the instruments will be administered Questions: ○ Where will the data be collected? ○ When will the data be collected? ○ How often are the data to be collected? ○ Who is to collect the data? Who Provides the information? ○ Researcher instruments – researchers themselves ○ Subject instruments – subjects of the study ○ Informant instruments – from others who are knowledgeable about the subjects Where did the instrument come from? ○ Existing instrument ○ Researcher developed or developed by someone else Researchers Completes 1. Rating scales 2. Interview schedules 3. Observation forms  4. Tally sheets 5. Flowcharts 6. Performance checklists 7. Anecdotal records 8. Time-and-motion logs Subject Completes 1. Questionnaires 2. Self-checklists 3. Attitude scales 4. Personality or character inventories 5. Achievement/ aptitude tests 6. Performances test 7. Projective devices 8. Sociometric devices Research Instruments Interview Protocol ○ a set of questions to be answered by the subjects of the study ○ Conducted orally ○ Structured/ semi-structured Observations Forms / Observation Schedules ○ Paper and pencil observation forms ○ Direct observation Reactive The researcher pretends to be someone ○ Unobtrusive The participants are aware of the researcher’s presence Anecdotal Records ○ record the behavior of individuals ○ Observers are free to record any behavior they think is important and need not focus on the same behavior for all subjects ○ 4 Types Evaluative – good/ bad, desirable/undesirable Interpretive – explains the child’s behavior Generalized – certain behavior in general terms Specific – tell exactly what the child did Time and Motion Logs ○ Observatio and detailed recording over a period of time of activities of one or more individuals Document Analysis ○ Is a systematic procedure for reviewing or evaluating documents both printed and electronic material.  ○ The data is examined and interpreted to elicit meaning, gain understanding, and develop empirical knowledge ○ Means of triangulation ○ Example Advertisements Books Brochures Diaries Journals Event programs Letters and memoranda Maps and charts Newspapers Press release Program proposals ○ Uses of Documents Provides data on the context within which research participants operate Suggests some questions that need to be asked and situations that need to be observed as part of the research Provides supplementary research data Provides a means of tracking change and development A way to verify findings or corroborate evidence from other sources Data Collection & Analysis Procedures Collecting - compiling or accumulating objects (docuents, artifacts, archival records, videos, or social media information) related to your study topic Data Collection No treatment No Manipulation of subjects On going Content Analysis - technique that enables researchers to study human behavior in a direct way, through an analysis of their communications Categorization in Content Analysis ○ The researcher determines the categories before any analysis. ( based on previous knowledge, theory, and/or experiences) ○ The researcher becomes very familiar with the descriptive information collected and allows the categories to emerge as the analysis continues Steps in Content Analysis ○ Determine the objectives 1. To obtain descriptive information about a topic  2. To formulate themes that help to organize and make sense out of large amounts of descriptive information 3. To check other research findings 4. To obtain information useful in dealing with educational problems 5. To test hypotheses ○ Define terms ○ Specify the unit of analysis ○ Locate relevant data ○ Develop rationale Researcher needs a conceptual link to explain how the data are related to the objectives ○ Develop a sampling plan ○ Formulate coding categories Categories Manifest ○ The Obvious, surface content ○ The words, pictures, images and so on that are directly accessible to the naked eye or ear ○ No interferences as to underlying meaning are necessary ○ Advantage ease of coding and reliability ○ Disadvantage validity Latent ○ The meaning underlying what is said or shown ○ Advantage Getting the underlying meaning of what is written or shown (validity) ○ Disadvantage reliability ○ Check reliability and validity ○ Analyze the data Counting is an important characteristic of some content analysis Each time a unit in a pertinent category is found it is “counted” The end product of the coding process must be numbers It is also important to record the BASE or reference point for the counting Frequencies, Percentage or The proportion of particular occurrence to total occurrences To explore relationships Crossbreak table or chi-square analysis (categorical data) Codes and themes Aids in organizing content and arriving at a narrative description of findings Advantages of Content Analysis it is unobtrusive - a researcher can observe without being observe since the contents being analyzed are not influenced by the researcher ' s presence It is extremely useful as a means of analyzing interview and observational data Researchers can delve into records and documents to get some feel for the social life of an earlier time The logistics are often relatively simple and economical- time and resources Data are readily available and almost always can be returned to if necessary or desired, permits replication of a study by other researchers Disadvantages of Content Analysis limited to recorded information Establishing validity Sometimes there is a temptation among researchers to consider that the interpretations gleaned from a particular content analysis indicate the causes of the phenomenon rather than being a reflection of it Thematic Analysis To systematically organize and analyse complex data sets Search for themes that can capture the narratives available in the account of data sets Involves the identification of themes through careful reading and re-reading of the transcribed data (King, 2004; Rice & Ezzy, 1999) Theoretically flexible for identifying, describing, and interpreting patterns (themes) within a data set in great detail (Braun & Clarke, 2006) Constant- comparative method (Cavendish, 2011) Types ○ Deductive (top-down) Explicitly research driven allowing the researchers to analyze the data in relation to their theoretical interes in the issues being investigated Usually begins the analysis with the themes that are identified by the researcher through a literature review ○ Inductive (bottom-up) The data is coded without trying to fit the themes into a pre existing coding frame or the researchers preconceptions about the research Themes emerge through the data itself without paying attention to the themes included on other studies 6 Phases ○ Familiarisation with the Data ○ Generating Initial Codes ○ Search for Themes ○ Reviewing Themes ○ Defining and Naming Themes ○ Writing Report  The report must convince the readers of the merit and validity of the analysis The examples and extracts were embedded within the analytic narrative in such a way that they could make an argument concerning the research objectives, besides illustrating the study being told Saturation Types of Saturation 1. Theoretical Saturation a. In the field of grounded theory as the point at which no additional data is found that would allow the researcher to further develop the properties of the phenomenon b. A process of actively searching for and testing supporting evidence for the emerging theory c. It is a point where further data collection about a theoretical structure dos not reveal any new feature or provide additional theoretical insight into the emerging theory d. Important aspects i. Iterative process - The researcher simultaneously engages in sampling data collection and data analysis e. Theoretical Sampling i. Involves guiding and selecting subsequent participants based on the concepts identified from current data analysis and it continues until theoretical saturation is reached f. Focus onmphasizes the adequacy of discovery conceptual themes and their theoretical meanings during theory building process g. Judgement on Completeness of concept features and the coherence and relationship formed with other concepts and the overall theory 2. Data Saturation a. A point in data collection and analaysis where new data or information does not contribute significantly to addressing the research question or when existing data is replicated b. Focus on process of data collection c. Judgement on repetition or frequency of data, codes or themes 3. Code or Thematic Saturation a. A stage in the data analysis process where repetitive codes or themes are identified and no new information or relationships between them emerge b. Category Saturation i. Improves reliability compared to data saturation c. Focus on primary data analysis d. Judgement on repetition or frequency of data, codes or themes 4. Meaning Saturation a. A point in the process of data collection and analysis where issues are fully understand and no new information about the meaning of codes or themes and their relationship emerges b. Based on judgement regarding the completeness of coding and themes and the deep understanding of data c. Requires iterative and cyclical process of sampling, data collection and analysis , continuous monitoring of the diversity, clarity, and depth of data d. Focus on data analysis e. Judgement on the depth of meaning in themes