EDRE 101

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Questions and Answers

Who provides the information in a research study?

Secondary data sources

Statistical models

Regional authorities

Researchers themselves (correct)

What type of instrument is a questionnaire classified as?

Researcher instrument

Subject instrument (correct)

Observational instrument

Informant instrument

Which of the following is NOT a type of anecdotal record?

Statistical (correct)

Specific

Generalized

Evaluative

What is a primary characteristic of interview protocols?

Conducted orally Signup and view all the answers

Which instrument allows researchers to observe behavior without influencing the participants?

Unobtrusive observation Signup and view all the answers

Which tool is used to track the activities of individuals over time?

Time-and-motion logs Signup and view all the answers

What type of data does document analysis focus on?

Printed and electronic material Signup and view all the answers

What is a key aspect of performance checklists?

They provide a structured way to evaluate performance Signup and view all the answers

What type of variable is categorized by having no intrinsic ordering or ranking?

Nominal variable Signup and view all the answers

Which type of research is focused on testing objective theories and examining the relationship among variables?

Quantitative Research Signup and view all the answers

Which research design involves the researcher studying the lives of individuals and asking for personal stories?

Narrative Research Signup and view all the answers

Which category of continuous variables does NOT have a true zero point?

Interval variable Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes mixed methods research from qualitative and quantitative research?

Incorporates both predetermined and emerging methods Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements is true regarding ordinal variables?

They can be ranked or ordered. Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of qualitative research emphasizes understanding social or human problems through words?

Exploring multiple realities Signup and view all the answers

Which type of data is collected primarily in quantitative research?

Statistical and performance data Signup and view all the answers

What defines a homogenous sample in research?

Members possess a certain trait or characteristic. Signup and view all the answers

Which type of sample evolves based on emerging theory?

Theoretical sample Signup and view all the answers

Which instrument type is used to gather information about research subjects?

Data Signup and view all the answers

What is the sample size range typically recommended for grounded theory research?

20 - 30 Participants Signup and view all the answers

When is a snowball sample typically used in research?

When access to participants depends on existing connections. Signup and view all the answers

In which research type is a case study typically conducted?

With a single participant or a small group. Signup and view all the answers

What is not considered a part of the instrumentation process?

Selecting the participants randomly. Signup and view all the answers

What does 'convenience sampling' primarily rely on?

Individuals who are easily accessible. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of phenomenology research?

Common meanings of lived experiences Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of a phenomenon that could be studied using phenomenology?

Loneliness Signup and view all the answers

Which characteristic is NOT key in phenomenology research?

Quantitative data analysis Signup and view all the answers

What does 'bracketing' in the research process entail?

Setting aside preconceived knowledge Signup and view all the answers

In which type of phenomenology does the researcher focus more on the experiences of participants and less on their interpretations?

Transcendental phenomenology Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary objective of ethnography in research?

To understand cultural behaviors and interactions Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a source of data for phenomenological research?

Surveys with closed-ended questions Signup and view all the answers

What approach does hermeneutic phenomenology take?

It emphasizes lived experiences and interpretation of life texts. Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary advantage of using manifest coding categories in content analysis?

It is easy to code and offers high reliability. Signup and view all the answers

In thematic analysis, what characterizes the inductive approach?

Data is analyzed without preconceptions or existing themes. Signup and view all the answers

Which phase is NOT part of the thematic analysis process?

Conducting Interviews Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant disadvantage of content analysis?

It relies on recorded information, limiting its scope. Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'saturation' refer to in qualitative research?

The point where data collection is complete. Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect of thematic analysis enhances its theoretical flexibility?

The ability to derive themes from the data itself. Signup and view all the answers

What is a common misconception regarding content analysis?

The interpretations reveal causes of phenomena. Signup and view all the answers

Which statistical method is often used to explore relationships in categorical data?

Chi-square analysis Signup and view all the answers

What is an essential step in content analysis after coding data?

Analyzing and counting data Signup and view all the answers

What is often a limiting factor of content analysis?

It depends solely on documented sources. Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Independent & Dependent Variables

Grouping in a study involves categorizing participants based on the independent variable.
The dependent variable is measured after the study, providing the outcome based on the grouping by independent variable.

Types of Variables

Categorical Variables:
- Do not involve numerical measurements.
- Nominal: No inherent order or ranking (e.g., colors, gender).
- Ordinal: Data can be ranked or ordered (e.g., education levels, satisfaction ratings).
Quantitative Variables:
- Involve numerical measurements.
- Interval: Does not have a true zero point (e.g., temperature, IQ score).
- Ratio: Has a true zero point (e.g., test scores, weight).

Major Types of Research

Qualitative Research: Aims to explore and understand meanings individuals or groups attribute to social or human problems.
- Primarily uses words and multiple realities.
- Focuses on understanding situations and events.
- The researcher is immersed in the context.
- Often involves methods like ethnography.
- Employs emerging methods and open-ended questions.
- Data includes interviews, observations, documents, and audio-visual materials.
- Analysis focuses on themes, patterns, and interpretations.
Quantitative Research: Focuses on testing objective theories by examining relationships among variables.
- Primarily uses numbers and a single reality.
- Seeks to establish relationships between variables.
- The researcher is a detached observer.
- Often involves experimental designs.
- Employs predetermined methods and instrument-based questions.
- Data includes performance, attitude, observational, and census data.
- Analysis involves statistical approaches and interpretations.
Mixed Methods Research: Combines both qualitative and quantitative approaches.
- Uses both predetermined and emerging methods.
- Employs both open and closed-ended questions.
- Collects diverse data from multiple sources.
- Analysis includes statistical and text analysis integrating data from both qualitative and quantitative approaches.

Qualitative Research Designs

Narrative Research: Studies the lives of individuals by asking them to share their stories.
- Data sources: Interviews, observations (shadowing), documents, and artifacts.
Historical Research: Studies the past through historical records, interviews, direct observations, participant observation, and physical artifacts.
Phenomenology Research: Describes the shared meaning of lived experiences for individuals regarding a particular concept or phenomenon.
- Examples: Loneliness, anger, insomnia, grief, Olympic winner.
- Key characteristics: Rich, detailed descriptions of experiences.
- Types: Hermeneutic Phenomenology and Transcendental Phenomenology.
- Research Process: Phenomenological Reduction, Bracketing/Epoche, Imaginative Variation, Developing a composite statement from multiple perspectives.
- Data sources: Phenomenological Interviews (in-depth, open-ended questions).
Ethnography: Studies the meaning of behavior, language, and interactions within a culture-sharing group.
- Concepts: Culture (behavior & ideas), Holistic Perspective (group's history, social structure, politics, beliefs, symbols, rituals, and environment).
- Types of Samples: Atypical, Homogenous, Theoretical, Snowball.
- Convenience Sample: Individuals available or easily accessible.

Sample Size (Minimum Number of Participants)

Case Study: 1 or 4-5 participants.
Ethnography: Single culture-sharing group.
Phenomenology: 1-325 participants.
Grounded Theory: 20-30 participants.
Narrative Research: 1 or 2 participants.

Instrumentation

Data: Information researchers gather from study subjects.
Instrument: Tool used for data collection.
Instrumentation: Entire process of preparing to collect data.
- Involves: Selecting or designing instruments, defining procedures, and setting conditions for administering instruments.
- Considerations: Where, when, how often, who will collect the data.
Who provides the information:
- Researchers: Researchers themselves.
- Subjects: Participants in the study.
- Informants: Individuals knowledgeable about subjects but not directly involved in the study.
Where did the instrument come from: Existing instrument, researcher-developed, or developed by someone else.

Researchers Complete

Rating scales.
Interview schedules.
Observation forms.
Tally sheets.
Flowcharts.
Performance checklists.
Anecdotal records.
Time-and-motion logs.

Subjects Complete

Questionnaires.
Self-checklists.
Attitude scales.
Personality or character inventories.
Achievement/aptitude tests.
Performance tests.
Projective devices.
Sociometric devices.

Research Instruments

Interview Protocol: A set of questions asked orally to study subjects.
- Types: Structured, Semi-structured.
Observation Forms/Schedules: Paper-and-pencil forms used for direct observation.
- Types: Reactive (observer pretends to be someone else), Unobtrusive (participants are aware of observer).
Anecdotal Records: Notes on individuals' behavior.
- Types: Evaluative, Interpretative, Generalized, Specific.
Time and Motion Logs: Detailed recordings of individuals' actions over time.
Document Analysis: Systematic review or evaluation of written or electronic documents.
- Purpose: Test hypotheses, define terms, specify unit of analysis, locate relevant data, develop rationale, develop sampling plan, formulate coding categories, check reliability and validity, analyze data.
- Coding Categories: Manifest (obvious content), Latent (underlying meaning).

Advantages of Content Analysis

Unobtrusive (researchers can observe without being observed).
Useful for analyzing interview and observational data.
Allows for studying social life from past records and documents.
Logistically simple and cost-effective.
Data readily available and can be revisited for replication.

Disadvantages of Content Analysis

Limited to recorded information.
Establishing validity can be challenging.
Can create a temptation to interpret findings as causal rather than reflective.

Thematic Analysis

Systematic method for organizing and analyzing complex data sets.
Involves identifying themes that capture the narrative within data sets.
Requires careful reading and re-reading of transcribed data.
Aim: Identifying, describing, and interpreting patterns (themes) in detail.
Employs Constant-Comparative Method.
Types: Deductive (top-down, theory-driven) and Inductive (bottom-up, data-driven).
Six Phases: Familiarization with Data, Generating Initial Codes, Search for Themes, Reviewing Themes, Defining and Naming Themes, Writing Report.

Saturation

A point in data collection where no new information or themes emerge.
Types of Saturation: Not mentioned within the text.

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Qualitative Research