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Questions and Answers
Who provides the information in a research study?
What type of instrument is a questionnaire classified as?
Which of the following is NOT a type of anecdotal record?
What is a primary characteristic of interview protocols?
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Which instrument allows researchers to observe behavior without influencing the participants?
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Which tool is used to track the activities of individuals over time?
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What type of data does document analysis focus on?
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What is a key aspect of performance checklists?
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What type of variable is categorized by having no intrinsic ordering or ranking?
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Which type of research is focused on testing objective theories and examining the relationship among variables?
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Which research design involves the researcher studying the lives of individuals and asking for personal stories?
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Which category of continuous variables does NOT have a true zero point?
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What distinguishes mixed methods research from qualitative and quantitative research?
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Which of the following statements is true regarding ordinal variables?
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What aspect of qualitative research emphasizes understanding social or human problems through words?
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Which type of data is collected primarily in quantitative research?
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What defines a homogenous sample in research?
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Which type of sample evolves based on emerging theory?
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Which instrument type is used to gather information about research subjects?
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What is the sample size range typically recommended for grounded theory research?
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When is a snowball sample typically used in research?
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In which research type is a case study typically conducted?
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What is not considered a part of the instrumentation process?
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What does 'convenience sampling' primarily rely on?
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What is the primary focus of phenomenology research?
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What is an example of a phenomenon that could be studied using phenomenology?
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Which characteristic is NOT key in phenomenology research?
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What does 'bracketing' in the research process entail?
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In which type of phenomenology does the researcher focus more on the experiences of participants and less on their interpretations?
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What is the primary objective of ethnography in research?
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Which of the following is NOT a source of data for phenomenological research?
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What approach does hermeneutic phenomenology take?
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What is a primary advantage of using manifest coding categories in content analysis?
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In thematic analysis, what characterizes the inductive approach?
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Which phase is NOT part of the thematic analysis process?
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What is a significant disadvantage of content analysis?
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What does the term 'saturation' refer to in qualitative research?
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Which aspect of thematic analysis enhances its theoretical flexibility?
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What is a common misconception regarding content analysis?
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Which statistical method is often used to explore relationships in categorical data?
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What is an essential step in content analysis after coding data?
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What is often a limiting factor of content analysis?
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Study Notes
Independent & Dependent Variables
- Grouping in a study involves categorizing participants based on the independent variable.
- The dependent variable is measured after the study, providing the outcome based on the grouping by independent variable.
Types of Variables
-
Categorical Variables:
- Do not involve numerical measurements.
- Nominal: No inherent order or ranking (e.g., colors, gender).
- Ordinal: Data can be ranked or ordered (e.g., education levels, satisfaction ratings).
-
Quantitative Variables:
- Involve numerical measurements.
- Interval: Does not have a true zero point (e.g., temperature, IQ score).
- Ratio: Has a true zero point (e.g., test scores, weight).
Major Types of Research
-
Qualitative Research: Aims to explore and understand meanings individuals or groups attribute to social or human problems.
- Primarily uses words and multiple realities.
- Focuses on understanding situations and events.
- The researcher is immersed in the context.
- Often involves methods like ethnography.
- Employs emerging methods and open-ended questions.
- Data includes interviews, observations, documents, and audio-visual materials.
- Analysis focuses on themes, patterns, and interpretations.
-
Quantitative Research: Focuses on testing objective theories by examining relationships among variables.
- Primarily uses numbers and a single reality.
- Seeks to establish relationships between variables.
- The researcher is a detached observer.
- Often involves experimental designs.
- Employs predetermined methods and instrument-based questions.
- Data includes performance, attitude, observational, and census data.
- Analysis involves statistical approaches and interpretations.
-
Mixed Methods Research: Combines both qualitative and quantitative approaches.
- Uses both predetermined and emerging methods.
- Employs both open and closed-ended questions.
- Collects diverse data from multiple sources.
- Analysis includes statistical and text analysis integrating data from both qualitative and quantitative approaches.
Qualitative Research Designs
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Narrative Research: Studies the lives of individuals by asking them to share their stories.
- Data sources: Interviews, observations (shadowing), documents, and artifacts.
- Historical Research: Studies the past through historical records, interviews, direct observations, participant observation, and physical artifacts.
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Phenomenology Research: Describes the shared meaning of lived experiences for individuals regarding a particular concept or phenomenon.
- Examples: Loneliness, anger, insomnia, grief, Olympic winner.
- Key characteristics: Rich, detailed descriptions of experiences.
- Types: Hermeneutic Phenomenology and Transcendental Phenomenology.
- Research Process: Phenomenological Reduction, Bracketing/Epoche, Imaginative Variation, Developing a composite statement from multiple perspectives.
- Data sources: Phenomenological Interviews (in-depth, open-ended questions).
-
Ethnography: Studies the meaning of behavior, language, and interactions within a culture-sharing group.
- Concepts: Culture (behavior & ideas), Holistic Perspective (group's history, social structure, politics, beliefs, symbols, rituals, and environment).
- Types of Samples: Atypical, Homogenous, Theoretical, Snowball.
- Convenience Sample: Individuals available or easily accessible.
Sample Size (Minimum Number of Participants)
- Case Study: 1 or 4-5 participants.
- Ethnography: Single culture-sharing group.
- Phenomenology: 1-325 participants.
- Grounded Theory: 20-30 participants.
- Narrative Research: 1 or 2 participants.
Instrumentation
- Data: Information researchers gather from study subjects.
- Instrument: Tool used for data collection.
- Instrumentation: Entire process of preparing to collect data.
- Involves: Selecting or designing instruments, defining procedures, and setting conditions for administering instruments.
- Considerations: Where, when, how often, who will collect the data.
- Who provides the information:
- Researchers: Researchers themselves.
- Subjects: Participants in the study.
- Informants: Individuals knowledgeable about subjects but not directly involved in the study.
- Where did the instrument come from: Existing instrument, researcher-developed, or developed by someone else.
Researchers Complete
- Rating scales.
- Interview schedules.
- Observation forms.
- Tally sheets.
- Flowcharts.
- Performance checklists.
- Anecdotal records.
- Time-and-motion logs.
Subjects Complete
- Questionnaires.
- Self-checklists.
- Attitude scales.
- Personality or character inventories.
- Achievement/aptitude tests.
- Performance tests.
- Projective devices.
- Sociometric devices.
Research Instruments
-
Interview Protocol: A set of questions asked orally to study subjects.
- Types: Structured, Semi-structured.
-
Observation Forms/Schedules: Paper-and-pencil forms used for direct observation.
- Types: Reactive (observer pretends to be someone else), Unobtrusive (participants are aware of observer).
-
Anecdotal Records: Notes on individuals' behavior.
- Types: Evaluative, Interpretative, Generalized, Specific.
- Time and Motion Logs: Detailed recordings of individuals' actions over time.
-
Document Analysis: Systematic review or evaluation of written or electronic documents.
- Purpose: Test hypotheses, define terms, specify unit of analysis, locate relevant data, develop rationale, develop sampling plan, formulate coding categories, check reliability and validity, analyze data.
- Coding Categories: Manifest (obvious content), Latent (underlying meaning).
Advantages of Content Analysis
- Unobtrusive (researchers can observe without being observed).
- Useful for analyzing interview and observational data.
- Allows for studying social life from past records and documents.
- Logistically simple and cost-effective.
- Data readily available and can be revisited for replication.
Disadvantages of Content Analysis
- Limited to recorded information.
- Establishing validity can be challenging.
- Can create a temptation to interpret findings as causal rather than reflective.
Thematic Analysis
- Systematic method for organizing and analyzing complex data sets.
- Involves identifying themes that capture the narrative within data sets.
- Requires careful reading and re-reading of transcribed data.
- Aim: Identifying, describing, and interpreting patterns (themes) in detail.
- Employs Constant-Comparative Method.
- Types: Deductive (top-down, theory-driven) and Inductive (bottom-up, data-driven).
- Six Phases: Familiarization with Data, Generating Initial Codes, Search for Themes, Reviewing Themes, Defining and Naming Themes, Writing Report.
Saturation
- A point in data collection where no new information or themes emerge.
- Types of Saturation: Not mentioned within the text.
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