Rural Development PDF

RURAL DEVELOPMENT 109 Gandhian Studies The following pictures represent certain specific areas. Can you identify it? Which one is rural and which is urban? What are the features of rural area? How we can develop these areas?...

RURAL DEVELOPMENT 109 Gandhian Studies The following pictures represent certain specific areas. Can you identify it? Which one is rural and which is urban? What are the features of rural area? How we can develop these areas? In this chapter we discussed the methods and approaches that were adopted by our nation for rural development. Here Gandhian vision of rural reconstruction is also included Concept of Rural Development The term 'rural development' is a subset of the broader term development. Development is a process of change aiming at the socio-economic transformation of a traditional society into a modern society. In general, development means improvement in the standard of living of the people. It is an all round development of traditional rural society into modern by bringing about socio- economic reforms and planned change. A rural area is where people are engaged in primary occupation in the sense that they produce things directly for the first time in cooperation with nature. Rural areas are sparsely settled places away from the influence of large cities and towns. Such areas are distinct from more intensively settled urban and suburban areas, and also from unsettled lands such as the wilderness. People live in village, on farms and in other isolated houses. Normally rural areas have an agricultural character. According to the 2011census 69% of Indian population lives in rural areas 110  RURAL DEVELOPMENT The term rural development connotes overall development of rural areas to improve the quality of life of rural people. It is a comprehensive and multi dimensional concept and encompasses the development of agriculture and allied activities, village and cottage industries, crafts, socio-economic infrastructure, community services and facilities and above all the human resources in rural areas. Rural development can be conceptualized as a process, a phenomenon, a strategy and a discipline. The central theme of rural development is economic and social upliftment of a large portion of low income, low status people residing in the villages in India. They have to be provided not only with gainful employment but also educational opportunities, medical and health services and a inhabitable neighbourhood. Rural development should be a planned one and carried out by the rural people themselves who are the ultimate beneficiaries. In this context panchayats and government have to play a crucial role. Economic growth with social justice became the proclaimed objective of the planning process under rural development. It began with an emphasis on agricultural production and consequently expanded to promote productive employment opportunities for rural masses, especially the poor, by integrating 111 Gandhian Studies production, infrastructure, human resource and institutional development measures In the Indian context rural development may be defined as maximizing production in agriculture and allied activities in the rural areas including development of rural industries with emphasis on village and cottage industries. Let us do: Prepare a short note on rural development Basic Elements of Rural Development There are three basic elements in rural development: 1. Basic necessities of life: People have certain basic needs, without which it would be impossible (or very difficult) for them to service. The basic necessities include food, clothes, shelter, basic literacy, primary healthcare and security of life and property. An absence of any one or all of them or if there is critically short supply, it could be called a state of absolute under development. 2. Self respect: Every person and every nation seeks some sort of self respect, dignity or honor. Absence or denial of self respect indicates lack of development. 3. Freedom: Here freedom refers to political or ideological freedom, economic freedom and freedom from social servitude. 112  RURAL DEVELOPMENT As long as society is bound by the servitude of man to nature, ignorance, institutions and dogmatic beliefs, it cannot claim to have achieved the goal of development. Servitude in any form reflects a state of under development. Let us do: Find out the main elements of rural development Dimensions of Rural Development In rural development programmes priority should be given to the marginalized, poor and deprived sections of society, it should encompass all aspects of rural life including nature and its elements. The important dimensions of rural development are : 1. Development of agriculture and allied activities In rural development importance should be given to development of agriculture and allied activities. This includes developing high yielding and hybrid seeds, fertilizers and chemicals, knowledge of pesticide management, nutrition management, preservation of bio-diversity, maintaining indigenous technical knowledge and germplasm. 2. Socio-economic and political development It aims at improving the socio-economic and political condition of the rural people. Rural development may be meaningful and significant when the rural people have freedom to express their opinion, free and fair franchise in democracy, increased purchasing power, elimination of poverty and freedom from indebtedness. 3. Improving quality of rural life In this dimension, activities may include construction of rural durable assets and infrastructure like roads, bridges, power supply and educational facilities. Improving health and sanitation, adoption of information and communication technology (ICT), new product development for rural market, durable agriculture goods and services like banking, telephone, insurance etc. 113 Gandhian Studies 4. Rural disaster risk mitigation Disaster risk mitigation is an important aspect of sustainable rural development. For this purpose community risk perception, risk identification, risk mitigation and risk transfer through insurance like crop insurance, Kisan credit card etc.Should be taken into account. Prevention of river bank erosion, flood and draught control measures, community capacity building area are also included in this dimension Let us know Mitigation. Mitigation is the effort to reduce loss of life and property by reducing the impact of disasters. Mitigation is taking action now-before the next disaster-to reduce human and financial consequences later (analyzing risk, reducing risk, insuring against risk). Effective mitigation requires that we understand local risks, address the hard choices and invest in long-term community well-being. Without mitigation actions, we jeopardize our safety, financial security and self-reliance. Let us do: Complete the diagram based on the dimensions of rural development 114  RURAL DEVELOPMENT Focus of Rural Development In general, rural development focused on certain points. Primarly, it focused on the development of man and his environment. Secondly, conceptual focus to be given on ecological setting. Use of appropriate technology to gain access to efficient sources of economic growth should constitute the third focus of rural development. Institution building at the village level, organization and management of men, money or any material resources should be the fourth component of rural development. The fifth component is self reliance which needs to be brought in through local initiative, participation and mobilization of existing resources. The sixth focus of rural development should be on the distributive justice in so far as the poor segment of rural population are concerned Development programmes and projects should be taken up on priority the basis of backward and remote areas in order to prevent starvation and unnatural loss of lives in that region. So people living below poverty line, vulnerable to famine and natural disaster due to flood, draught etc. and deprived of getting basic amenities of modern life should be given utmost priority in rural development. Let us do: Prepare a chart showing the focuses of rural development Objectives of Rural Development 1. Poverty alleviation Poverty is a serious Think and share: problem in India and many other countries. Poverty Discuss in groups and make a may be defined as the presentation on the objectives of rural inability to secure the development. minimum consumption requirements for life and efficiency. 115 Gandhian Studies Poverty alleviation measures have to be viewed in a wider perspective of socio-economic transformation in the country. The programmes should be regarded as supplementing the basic plan of overall growth in terms of generating productive assets, skills as well as income for the poor. Due importance was given to the removal of poverty in all the five year plans of our country. Anti-poverty programmes and measures were implemented by the Government of India. 2. Agricultural development The majority of our population lives in villages and most of them depend directly or indirectly on agriculture to survive. Agriculture plays an important role in food production, processing and distribution. Agriculture development can make a difference in the lives of millions of poor people mainly women and uneducated people. It can contribute to both economic growth and reduction of povery and food security. 3. Health and Hygiene It aims to create awareness and develop necessary infrastructure to provide people with healthy and clean living conditions in rural areas because the rural poor have very little awareness about health and hygiene. 116  RURAL DEVELOPMENT 4. Rural Planning Planning is essentially a way of organizing and utilizing resources to gain maximum advantages in terms of defined social ends. In this way rural development will try to take maximum advantages from the available resources. For this we adopt proper planning. The object of planning methods is to enhance the management of resources for long term productivity while enhancing quality of life of the people. 5. Improvement in productivity Economic development of rural people is closely related to facilitating the enhancement of rural productivity. Availability and better access to resources and technologies will improve their productivity. For this, planning is essential. Rural development programmes can give emphasis to this and help the rural people to acquire better productivity. 6. Improvement of quality of life As majority of poor reside in rural areas, the main Think and share: goal of rural development is to improve the quality of Can you suggest any other objectives life of the poor by of rural development? alleviating poverty, by providing community infrastructure facilities like drinking water, electricity, road, health facility, housing, education facility etc. and promoting decentralization of powers. Gandhian views on Rural Reconstruction The term rural reconstruction means construction of villages in a new way or bringing it up all over again. The rural problem will be solved with this reconstruction and this will lead to radical changes in the life of villagers and their economic system. 117 Gandhian Studies Let us do: Can you differentiate between rural development and rural reconstruction? Gandhiji's approach to rural reconstruction was holistic and people centered. It was rooted in his conviction in the tenets of truth and non violence and goodness of human beings. He placed a lot of signifcance on moral, spiritual and economic development to ensure overall development. His concept of rural reconstruction emphasized on economic, political, educational, ecological and spiritual dimensions. This strategy was based on his concept of village Swaraj. Gandhiji insisted on a pattern of village life which will be people centred and non-exploiting in nature. The decentralized village economy should provide employment to all on the basis of voluntary co-operation and work for achieving self-sufficiency in its basic requirements of food, clothing and shelter. Gandhiji said, "My idea of ideal village is that of complete republic independent of its neighbour for its own vital wants and yet dependent on many others in which dependence is necessary. Such a village will contain intelligent people". First concern of the village should be on growing its own food. Only there all the communities will live together in harmony. Gandhiji considered 118 truth, non-violence, freedom, equality, full employment, bread  RURAL DEVELOPMENT labour, trusteeship, decentralization, swadeshi and co-operation as cardinal principles for rural development. Theoretically, Gandhian approach to rural reconstruction may be labelled as 'idealist'. It attaches supreme importance to moral values. He realized the need for integrated rural development and believed that education, health and vocation should be properly integrated. He emphasized the need for education and training which he called 'Nai Talim' (New training ) for rural reconstruction. Gandhian approach to rural reconstruction strives to reconstruct village republics which would be non-violent, self- governed and self-sufficient so far as the basic necessities of rural people are concerned. Gandhian Strategies for Rural Reconstruction Gandhiji's approach to rural reconstruction was practical and productive. He wanted to develop a 'New social Order' based on the foundation of non-violence and truth where economic upliftment and rural progress go together focusing on 'Development of Man'. Constructive programme To Gandhiji Constructive programme is the medium through which rural reconstruction is realized. He developed various activities under his constructive programme and considerd it as a truthful and non-violent way for winning poorna swaraj. Constructive programme is an attempt to develop society at the grass root level with locally available resources. This It is not only for rural development but also for the nation's re-construction. Agriculture In Gandhian vision of rural re-construction, agriculture was a primary concern because food is the basic requirement of life. It has a major role in village or rural development. It provides major employment opportunities to the rural people. 119 Gandhian Studies Let us do: Prepare an article on Gandhian views on Rural reconstruction Early Rural development programmes in India Before independence a few social workers having philanthropic bent of mind initiated rural reconstruction programmes mostly in isolation from one another and without any or very little government assistance. These approaches are not mutually exclusive, rather there may be overlapping and one approach is more or less related to the previous one Sporadic approaches (1903-1948) These are the earlier attempts ofr rural development made by eminent social workers. They are: 1. Scheme of rural reconstruction at Sunderban (1903) As early as in 1903 Sir Daniel Hamilton had experimented with model villages in an area of Sundarban, Bengal. This work continued with the organization of a Central co-operative bank and co-operative marketing society in 1924 and rural reconstruction initiated in 1934. Rural Reconstruction Institute offered training in cottage industries. 120  RURAL DEVELOPMENT 2. Marthandam Experiment (1921) This was started in 1921 near Thiruvananthapuram under the leadership of Dr. Spencer Hatch. This experiment aimed to bring about a complete upward development towards a more abundant life for rural people spiritually, mentally, physically, socially and economically. It was set up under the auspices of YMCA ( Young Men's Christian Association). From the demonstration centre at Marthandam about 100 villages were covered through YMCA centre in villages. It had a demonstration farm for improving grain and vegetable seeds, prized animals, equipment for honey industry etc. Some local industries like weaving, poultry, bee- keeping were started on a co-operative and self help basis. This experiment made gains in the field of changing the outlook of rural people ie., enthusing them, inculcating in them a desire to improve and creating in them a spirit of co-operation and self respect. 3. Sriniketan Experiment (1921) The Srinikethan Institute of Rural Reconstruction was established by Sri. Rabindranath Tagore in Bengal in 1921. A group of eight villages was the centre of this programme. The ideas of the poet was translated into a number of practical activities such as organization of health co-operative? agriculture demonstration, supply of better seed and manure, improvement of cottage industries through the establishment of a training centre for handicrafts, starting a youth movement (Vrathachari movement) and Shiksha Satra ( A school for educating boys and girls of the village). There was a tangible improvement in the nearby places of Sriniketan, but the experiment did not have a widespread impact. 4. Gurgaon experiment (1927) Mr. F. I. Brayne, collector of Gurgaon district of Punjab conceived the idea of rural development in 1927. Under this 121 Gandhian Studies scheme a 'village guide' was posted in each village who was to act as a channel through which the advice of experts in various departments could be passed on to the villagers. The programme introduced improved seeds, implemented and improved methods of cultivation. Their propaganda was conducted through films, songs, dramas with a view to increase farm yield and health standards. The village guides were not technical people and hence very little achievements were made. 5. Baroda Experiment In 1932, the princely state of Baroda launched a broad programme with a view to promote the urge to live better and have a capacity for self help and self reliance among the rural people under the dynamic leadership of V. K. Krishnamachari. 6. Sevagram Experiment (1933) This programme was started under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi in 1933. The main objectives were : a) service to the under privileged, b) decentralized production and equal distribution of wealth and c) self-sufficiency of Indian villagers. The activities of Sevagram experiment consisted of training centres for cottage industries, preaching and practicing communal harmony, prohibition, removal of untouchability and stress on women's education. 7. Firka Development Scheme (1946) The Chief Minister Sri. T. Prakasam initiated this development scheme in the Madras State in 1946 through 34 Firkas in the State. In April 1950, it was extended to another 50 additional Firkas. This was a scheme of rural reconstruction and derived its inspiration from the ideals of Gandhiji. The short term objective of the scheme was to develop basic amenities and institutional framework, water supply and sanitation work and 122  RURAL DEVELOPMENT formation of Panchayats and Co-operatives. The long term objective was to attain self sufficiency in matters of basic needs like food, clothing, shelter etc. through the development of agriculture, animal husbandry, khadi and cottage industries. 8. Nilokheri Experiment This attempt drew countrywide attention and influenced the community development movement. The spirit behind the project was Sri. S. K. Day. Nilokheri township was designed to rehabilitate about 7000 people from Pakistan displaced after partition. The scheme was called "Mazdoor Manzil". The objective was to attain self sufficiency in the essential requirements. A vocational training centre was the hub of activities. The colony had its own dairy, poultry, printing press, engineering workshop, tannery, bone- meal factory etc. All these run on co-operative lines. These people were trained in the vocation of their choice. 9. Grow More Food Campaign (1947) This campaign was launched during 1947 to increase agriculture production. Even after four years of working the system was not functioning properly and the response of cultivators towards this programme was poor. For the betterment of this scheme the GMF enquiry committee was appointeed in 1952 to enquire about the progress of this programme. 10. The Etawah Pilot Project (1948) This project was launched in 1948 in Etawah district of Uttar Pradesh with headquarters at Meheva village. The architect of the pilot project was Mr. Albert Mayer of U.S.A. The principal objective of the project was to see what degree of productive and social improvement as well as initiative, self confidence and co-operation can be developed in people. 123 Gandhian Studies The pilot programme included introduction of improved agriculture and animal husbandry practices, public health education, literacy campaign, improvement of cottage industries etc. It also took up the consideration of roads, soak pits etc. All these resulted in improving the economic condition of the villagers. This project was found to be successful and the pattern was accepted for the community projects. Shortcomings of Sporadic Approaches :- The earlier rural reconstruction had the following short comings: 1. Most of the efforts were based on individual initiative 2. All attempts were isolated, uneven and discontinous 3. Government backing and financing were not forthcoming 4. Staff were mostly inexperienced and incompetent 5. Involvement of people in planning and execution were very limited 6. Association and co-ordination with other development departments were very limited 7. No evaluation was carried out, hence the results were not known. Let us do: Write a note on early the rural development programmes of India A. Multipurpose Approaches (1952-1959) Approach to rural development in independent India started with a multipurpose approach in the year 1952. This was in the form of community development programme of 1952. In order to develop the rural areas all the Five Year Plans also gave due importance to rural development Five Year Plans Five-Year Plans (FYPs) are centralized and integrated national 124 economic programmes. India’s first FYP has launched in 1951,  RURAL DEVELOPMENT immediately after independence, by Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru. It is a national governmental programme for planned, co- ordinated, and cumulative economic and social development over a period of five years. Five-Year Plans are developed, executed, and monitored by the Planning Commission In 1st January 2015, Planning Commission was replaced by NITI Aayog (National Institution for Transforming India Aayog). It is a policy think tank of Govt. of India, aims to involve the states in economic policy making in India. The Prime Minister heads the Aayog as its Chairperosn. 125 Gandhian Studies Community Development Programme According to planning commission, Community Development is a social and economic transformation of village life through the efforts of people themselves. The community development programme was launched on 2nd October 1952 with 55 Community Development Projects (CDPs). The programme aimed at building grass root level democratic institutions and contribute to the material wellbeing of rural people without any changes in the existing political and economic order. The fundamental objective of this programme was the development of people. Its broad objectives are economic development, social justice and democratic growth. The project was headed by a Project Officer and a number of Extension Officers in the disciplines of agriculture, animal husbandry, co-operation, industries, rural engineering etc. Each project had about 60 multipurpose Village Level Workers (VLWs), one for every group of 5 to 10 villagers National Extension Service (NES) The people in all community development programmes respond enthusiastically and the need for an expansion of the programme to other parts of the country was urgently felt. Limited resources did not permit a rapid expansion of programme. In 1953, the National Extension Service(NES) programme was launched with the idea of having a wider cost effective coverage and ensuring vider participation. Each NES block had about 100 villages and about 65000 populations. The NES blocks were headed by a Block Development Officer (BDO) and by Gramasevak's ( Later Gramasevak's came to be known as Extension Officers (EOs) ) 126  RURAL DEVELOPMENT Community Development Block In 1954 the NES blocks which produced good results and were participation of people was was very significant were converted to Community Development Blocks. A Block Office had a Block Development Officer (BDO) as the head and was assisted by Extension Officers in Agriculure (AEO), Animal Husbandary (EOAH), Co-operation (EOCo-operative), Industries (EO Industries), Social Education Officer (SEO), Rural Engineering (EO Rural Engineering), Sanitary Inspector etc and normally 10 multipurpose Village Level Workers (VLWs). Let us do: Write a short note on community development B. Technological Package Approaches (1960-1966) The aim of these approaches was to stop the import of food grains and to make the country self sufficient. For this higher agricultural production methods were adopted. Intensive Agriculture District Programme (IADP) The Intensive Agriculture District Programme (IADP) popularly known as Package Programme was launched in 1960 in 15 selected districts. The major objectives of IADP was to achieve rapid increase in agricultural output through better access to technical, financial, extension and administrative resources. Technical components included in this programme were irrigation, dry farming and land reclamation, supply of fertilizers, seed multiplication and distribution, plant protection, better ploughs and improved agricultural implements and adoption of scientific agricultural practices. 127 Gandhian Studies Intensive Agricultural Area Programme (IAAP) The spectacular outcome of IAAP prompted the government to think of extending the benefits of improved technology in agriculture over a large area spread across the country at less cost and with reduced staff strength. This resulted in the launching of IAAP in March 1964. This was similar to less intensive extension programme in comparison to that of the IADP. High Yielding Variety Programme (HYVP) As a result of IADP and IAAP it was felt that there was an urgency in developing and evolving high yielding agricultural technologies. We imported a number of high yielding wheat from Mexico and rice varieties from Philippines for experimentation. Thereafter Indian scientists developed high yielding strains of maze, millets and sorghum. High Yielding Variety Programme (HYVP) was launched in 1966. This helped India in attaining self sufficiency and stop import of food grains. The technological development did not remain confined to the introduction of high yielding crop varieties alone. These were combined with the application of high analysis and balanced fertilization, irrigation, plant protection, improved implements etc., which made a "Green Revolution" possible in the country. However the success was confined to irrigated areas and better off farmers. Let us know The Green Revolution In the 1960s, the Green Revolution allowed less developed countries, such as India, to overcome chronic food deficits. Basically, the Green Revolution stands for production of more food and other agricultural products from less land. Modernization is one of the main concepts in the Green Revolution. High-yielding varieties of seeds, modified farm equipment, and substantially increasing chemical fertilizers. This allowed growth and sustainability. In the beginning of the Green Revolution, there was a large growth in Indian agriculture However, instability arose and Green Revolution was on a rapid decline. In the end, it caused a shortage of water. When water is the primary source of survival, life seems difficult. 128  RURAL DEVELOPMENT C. Target group and Area Specific Approaches (1969-1979) The realization of the widening disparities led to a new policy thrust from 1970 onwards through a number of target group and area oriented programmes. The new initiative was taken to improve the economic conditions and reduce the income disparities in rural areas through special programmes for the benefit of the poorer sections of the society. Target Group Programmes - Small Farmers Development Agency (SFDA) and Marginal Farmers and Agricultural Labourers Development Agency (MFAL) Target Group Programme include Small Farmers Development Agency (SFDA) and Marginal Farmers and Agricultural Labourers Development Agency (MFAL. The main objective was to enable the small, marginal farmers and agricultural labourers to participate in the process of development and share its benefits. These programmes have been intended to enable the weaker sections of society to raise their productivity and income through assistance in terms of capital, physical inputs and technology ie:, through the deal of extension, training, marketing and concessional finance. Area Oriented Programmes There are five main programmes in this category. They are 1. Drought Prone Area Programme(DPAP)(1971), 2. Command Area Development Programme (CADP) (1974), 3. Hill Area Development Programme (HADP) (1975), 4. Desert Development Programme (DDP)(1977) and 5. Integrated Wastelands Development Programme (IWDP) (1989). The main objective of these programmes were to achieve integrated development through optimum utilization of all productive resources of an area. This approach contributed heavily in relieving local people from suffering by removing the geographic 129 Gandhian Studies constraints that they confronted. The target group approaches were incorporated in these programmes. Training and Visit System (T&V) Training and Visit System was a method of agricultural extension that evolved on the basis of the experiences gained in a pilot project set up with World Bank assistance in canal areas and Chambal command areas in 1974. The purpose of T&V system of agricultural extension was to build a professional extension service that will be capable of assisting farmers to raise production and there by increase their income. Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK) Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK) was designed to impart need based and skill oriented vocational training to the practicing farmers, in- service field level extension workers and those who wish to go in for self employment. The first KVK was established in 1974 in Pondichery. The main objective of KVK was to provide a strong training support to bringing about production breakthrough in agriculture. Operational Research Project (ORP) The Operational Research Project (OPR) was started in 1974- 1975. The objective was to test the result of the new research results in farms. It covered diverse topics like crop farming, mixed farming, integrated pest management, plantation crops, post- harvest technology, land reclamation, arid land management, fisheries etc. It also studied the socio-economic, technological, extension and administrative barriers in such operational areas. 130  RURAL DEVELOPMENT Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) The scheme of Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) aimed at providing a package of supplementary nutrition, immunization, health check-up, and referral services to children below six years of age and expectant mothers, non- formal pre-school education to children and nutrition and health education to women. This programme was taken up on an experimental basis in 33 project areas during 1975-1976. Food For Work Programme (FFW) Food for Work Programme (FFW) was launched in April 1977. It aimed at eradication of hunger and poverty and the creation of community assets in rural areas by providing employment for rural poor particularly during the period of slack employment of the year. Special advantage of Food for Work Programme (FFW) was its part wage payment in the from of foodgrains at subsidized prices, which assured minimum nutrition to the beneficiaries. Antyodaya Programme Antyodaya programme is oriented to uplift the poorest of the poor in the country. Antyodaya meant the welfare of a person standing at the end of the queue. This scheme was introduced by Janatha Government of 1978. So far as the operation of this programme was concerned, every year five poorest families of every village are identified and selected. Efforts are then made for the economic betterment of these families. But the new ministry that followed the Janatha experiment did not give much importance to this programme. Let us do: Prepare a detailed report on Target group and Area Specific Approaches of rural development in India 131 Gandhian Studies D. Integrated Rural Development Approach (1979-1998) Towards the close of 1970s and the beginning of 1980s the Government of India took several measures to launch a direct attack on poverty. For this purpose it launched so many programmes which included training programme, credit and subsidy schemes, self employment supporting schemes, social assistance schemes etc. 1. Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP) Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP) was launched in 1978-79 aimed at providing income generating assests and self employment opportunities for the rural poor. The main objective was to provide assistance to families below the poverty line (BPL) to enable them to attain an income level above the poverty line. Assistance under IRDP was given to the target group of the rural poor belonging to families below the poverty line in the form of subsidy by the government and term credit by financial institutions. The target group consisted of marginal farmers, agricultural labourers and rural artisans. The programme was extended to all development blocks in the country in 1980-81. The central and state governments provided financial resources for the programme and laid down broad guidelines for its implementation. However, the main administrative units of its implementation were the District Rural Development Agencies (DRDAs). At the block level a number of extension officers were assigned for the programme implementation. IRDP employed the cluster approach to select villages for implementing various components of the programme, the antyodaya approach to select beneficiaries within the selected villages, and the package approach to assist the selected beneficiaries. 132  RURAL DEVELOPMENT 2. Training of Rural Youth for Self Employment (TRYSEM) Training of Rural Youth for Self Employment (TRYSEM) was launched by Government of India on 15th August 1979. It was a facilitating component of IRDP. The objective is to provide technical skills to the rural youth from families below the poverty line to enable them to take up self employment in the broad fields of agriculture and allied activities, industries, service and business activities. Priority is given to people belonging to SC/STs, Ex- servicemen and women in the age group of 18-35. 3. Lab to Land Programme (LLP) This programme was launched in 1979. The overall objective was to improve the economic condition of the small and marginal farmers and landless agricultural labourers, particularly SC/STs by transfer of improved technology developed by the agricultural universities and research institutions. The programme was initiated with 75000 farm families of farmers in differen part of the country. This was implemented by agricultural universities, ICAR institutions, State departments of agriculture and some selected voluntary organizations. 4. National Rural Employment Programme (NREP) The National Rural Employment Programme (NREP) was launched in October 1980 as a Central government sponsored programme. Generating additional gainful employment opportunities, creating durable community assets and improving the overall quality of life in rural areas constituted the threefold objective. This programme was implemented through DRDA. It was merged with the Jawahar Rozgar Yojana from April, 1989. 5. Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas (DWCRA) The programme for Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas (DWCRA) was initiated as a sub scheme of IRDP in 1982-83. The objective was to provide income to women and also 133 Gandhian Studies provide organizational support in terms of receiving a system for assisting women so that they could become effective recipients of goods and services available in that area. The thrust of the programme has been to reach women from families below poverty line residing in rural areas by organizing them into groups and enabling them to take up activity which would help them to increase their income and make them aware of problems they face and services they are to make use of. 6. National Agricultural Extension Projects (NAEP) National Agricultural Extension Project (NAEP) was launched in 1983 to overcome the various organizational, structural and functional constraints identified. The basic objective was to bridge the gap between well developed research system with that of the extension system so that the transfer of technology took place at a much faster rate, resulting in higher production and prosperity of the rural sector in general and agricultural sector in particular. 7. Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Programme (RLEGP) Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Programme (RLEGP) was launched on 15th August 1983. It aimed a generating additional employment in rural areas particularly for the rural landless workers. Under this scheme, employment was given to atleast one member of every landless family upto 100 days in a year. The preference in employment was given to landless labourers, women, SC and STs. 8. Jawahar Rozgar Yojana (JRY) Jawahar Rozgar Yojana (JRY) is an employment programme initiated on 1st of April 1989 to provide employment to the rural poor. NREP and RLEGP were merged into this programme. The primary objective of this programme was generation of additional gainful employment for the unemployed and under employed persons which include both men and women in rural areas. The secondary objectives are creation of productive community assets 134  RURAL DEVELOPMENT and improvement in the overall quality of life in the rural areas.People below the poverty line were the target group and preference was given to the SC and STs. 9. Million Wells Scheme (MWS) The Million Wells Scheme (MWS) was launched as a sub-scheme of the National Rural Employment Programme (NREP) and the Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Programme (RLEGP) during the year 1988-89. After the merging of the two programmes in April 1989 into the Jawahar Rozgar Yojana (JRY), the MWS continued as a sub-scheme of JRY till December 1995. The MWS was delinked from JRY and made into an independent scheme with effect from 1.1.1996 The scheme was primarily intended to provide free of cost open irrigation wells, to poor individuals, small and marginal farmers belonging to SC/STs and freed bonded labourers with a 20% earmarking of JRY funds. 10. Supply of Improved Tool kits to Rural Artisans (SITRA) This programme was launched in July 1992, as a sub-scheme of IRDP in selected districts. Later this scheme as extended to all the districts of the country. Under the scheme, a variety of crafts persons, except weavers, tailors, needle workers and beedi workers, were supplied with a kit of improved hand tools within a financial ceiling of Rs.2000, of which, the artisans had to pay 10 % and the remaining 90 % was subsidy from the Government of India. The supply of power driven tools, subject to a ceiling of Rs.4500, was also permitted under this scheme. Beyond this, any additional finance required by the artisans was provided through loans under IRDP. The rural artisans were trained under TRYSEM for which age relaxation was given. 135 Gandhian Studies 11. Employment Assurance Scheme (EAS) Employment Assurance Scheme (EAS) was launched in 1993 to mitigate the problem of rural unemployment and under employment. This scheme envisaged that those who were in need of and sought employment would get assured wage employment for 100 days during the lean agricultural season. The objectives of EAS were to : 1) Provide gainful employment during the lean agricultural season in manual work and 2) The creation of economic infrastructure and community assets for sustained employment and development. 12. Indira Awaas Yojana (IAY) Indira Awaas Yojana (IAY) was a scheme sponsored by Central government to provide houses to certain sections of rural poor below the poverty line. Firstly it was a sub scheme of RLEGP and thereafter of JRY. From 1996 onwards it was implemented as an independent scheme. The objectives of this scheme were enhancing the quality of life and providing social security to the poor. This scheme was executed by Zilla Parishad, Panchayat Samiti and Grama Panchayats. 13. Jawahar Gram Samridhi Yojana (JGSY) Jawahar Gram Samridhi Yojana (JGSY) was the restructured programme of JRY. This was started in the year 1999. It was implemented at the village level and its objective was to create village infrastructure and generate employment opportunities to alleviate poverty. 14. National Social Assistance Programme (NSAP) National Social assistance Programme (NSAP) was conceived by the Central government to provide social assistance to poor households. The programme started from 15th August 1995. NSAP includes three schemes : 136  RURAL DEVELOPMENT 1. National Old Age Pension Scheme (NOAPS) 2. National Family Benefit Scheme (NFBS) and 3. National Maternity Benefit Scheme (NMBS) 15. Prime Minister's Rozgar Yojana (PMRY) Prime Ministers Rozgar Yojana (PMRY) is a self employment programme for the educated unemployed youth. This was started on 2nd October 1993. In this scheme the youth between the age of 18 to 35 belonging to the families having income less than 25000/- per annum are provided assistance. Let us do: Prepare a detailed report of integrated rural development approaches in India by specifying any six programmes. E. Group Approach to Rural Development (1999 onwards) Multiplicity of development programmes in rural areas failed to focus on the core issue of poverty alleviation through creation of sustainable income generating opportunities. Government reviewed the matter and restructured all the poverty alleviation programmes. 1. Swarnajayanthi Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY) Swarnajayanthi Gram Swarozgar Yojana was launched on 1st of April 1999 through incorporating earlier programmes like IRDP, TRYSEM, DWCRA, MWS etc. This programme is instrumental in setting up of a larger number of industries through bank credit and subsidy. The aim of this programme is to bring the assisted poor families above the poverty line by providing them income generating assets combining of bank credit and government subsidy. 137 Gandhian Studies 2. Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY) The Government of India launched a programme in December 2000 for village connectivity known as Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY). The objective of this programme is to connect all uncon-nected habitations having a population of 500 and above with all weather roads. The population threshold is relaxed to 250 in the case of hill, tribal and desert areas. PMGSY is a 100% funded programme of Central government. The Ministry of Rural Development (MoRD) is the implementing agency and The National Rural Development Agency (NRDA) provides management and technical support to this programme. 3. Providing Urban Amenities in Rural Areas (PURA) Providing Urban Amenities in Rural Areas (PURA) was initiated by Government of India in January 2004. This scheme aimed at bridging the rural - urban divide and achieving a balanced socio- economic development. This scheme consists of physical, electronic, knowledge and thereby leading to economic connectivity to enhance the prosperity of cluster of villages in rural areas. PURA enterprise can undertake management of schools, health care units, vocational training centres, chilling plants, building of local industrial/ ICT parks, tourism services, banking system and regional business or industrial units. 138  RURAL DEVELOPMENT 4. National Rural Health Mission (NRHM) National Rural Health Mission (NRHM) was launched by Central government on 12th April 2005 throughout the country. The main goals of this scheme are a. Provide effective healthcare to rural population b. Improve access to healthcare c. Enable community ownership and demand for service d. Strengthening public health system for effective service delivery e. Enhance quality and accountability f. Promote decentralization and integration with other sections mainly ICDS, nutrition, sanitation and hygiene, drinking water etc. The NRHM also plans to train and enhance capacity of Panchayat Raj Institutions (PRIs) to own, control and manage public health services. The District Health Mission (DHM), Public Health Centres (PHCs) and Community Health Centre (CHC) etc. come under this banner. 5. Bharat Nirman To change the face of rural India an ambitious four year (2005-2009) 'business plan' was implemented by Union Government on 16th May 2005. This is known as Bharat Nirman. Bharat Nirman is a plan for rural infrastructure which was implemented by the Government of India in order to provide some basic amenities to the rural India. Six key areas have been identified under this plan namely 1. Irrigation, 2. Roads, 3. Drinking water, 4. Housing, 5. Electricity and 6. Telephone. 139 Gandhian Studies 6. National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA) and Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Gurantee Act (MGNREGA) National Rural Employment Gurantee Act (NREGA) was passed in 2005. This scheme gurantees 100 days of wage employment in a year to every rural house hold adult members willing to do unskilled manual work. In the first phase 200 districts were identified for implementation of NREGA. The objective of the programme was to reduce unemployment in rural India, create enduring assets, augment rural income, provide an antidote to inflation and channel community efforts. An year later this programme was renamed as Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA). MGNREGA is considered as the 'Silver Bullet' for eradicating rural poverty and unemployment, by way of generating demand for productive labour force in villages. This scheme provides an alternative source of livelihood which will have an impact on reducing migration, restricting child labour, alleviating poverty and making village self sustaining through productive assets creation such as road construction, cleaning up of water tanks, soil and water conservation work etc. This is considered as the largest anti-poverty programme in India. Let us do: Write an essay on group approach to rural development programmes in India 140  RURAL DEVELOPMENT Various Programmes at a Glance Programme Aim Beneficiaries IRDP Provide income generating Rural families below the assets and self employment poverty line opportunities TRYSEM Provide technical skills to Youths from families below rural youth the poverty line LLP Improve the economic Small & marginal farmers, conditions landless agricultural labourers NREP Creating additional Rural people employment, creating durable community assets and improve overall quality of life DWCRA Provide income for women Women from families below the poverty line NAEP Bridge the gap between Rural and agricultural sector developed research system and extension system RLEGP Generate additional Member of rural landless employment family JRY Provide employment to rural People below the poverty line poor especially SC/ST MWS Provide open irrigation wells Individual, poor, small and marginal farmers SITRA Provide hand toolkits to Artisans and craft persons artisans 141 Gandhian Studies EAS Mitigate rural unemployment Rural people in need of and and under employment seeking employment IAY Enhance quality of life Rural poor below poverty line JGSY Create village infrastructure Village people and generate employment to alleviate poverty NSAP Provide social assistance Poor house holds PMRY Provide self employment Youth (18-35) below annual income of 25000/- SGSY Bring poor families above Poor families poverty line PMGSY Connecting all habitations Rural people PURA To bridge rural-urban divide Cluster of villages in rural and achieve a balanced socio- areas economic development NRHM Strengthening health system Rural people Bharat Provide basic amenities in Rural India Nirman rural India MGNREGA Reduce unemployment in Rural house hold adults rural India Rural Development Implementing Agencies Generally the main implementing authority of rural development programmes are Central government and State governments. Government agencies are DRDA, NABARD,VEO's, Blocks, Panchayats etc. Besides this some social work agencies, NGO's, co-operative societies etc. participate in implementing various programmes. 142  RURAL DEVELOPMENT In order to accord higher priority to rural development, the Department of Rural Development was constituted in October 1974 as a part of Ministry of Food and Agriculture, Government of India. Later several changes have occurred in this department and presently the Department of Rural Development has been elevated to the status of a ministry and has been re named as the Ministry of Rural Development. Ministry of Rural Development (MORD) Ministry of Rural Development (MORD) is the apex body at the level of Central Government. It plays a pivotal role in the overall development strategy of the country. This department formulates policies and design and implement a number of rural development programmes. The vision and mission of the Ministry is sustainable and inclusive growth of rural India through a multipronged strategy for eradication of poverty by increasing livelihood opportunities, providing social safety net and developing infrastructure for growth. This is expected to improve quality of life in rural India and to correct the developmental imbalances, aiming in the process, to reach out to most disadvantaged sections of the society. Ministry of Rural Development has three departments namely Department of Rural Development (DRD) Department of Land Resources(DoLR) and Department of Drinking Water Supply. The Department of Rural Development is implementing a number of programmes in rural areas through the state 143 Gandhian Studies Governments for poverty reduction, employment generation, rural infrastructure, habitant development and provision of basic minimum services. State Rural Development Department (SRD) Besides the MoRD, every State has a department called State Rural Development Department (SRD), whose mandate is similar to the MoRD. A State may launch its own rural development programmes either singly or jointly with the MoHRD. The role of SRD is restricted to the formulation of policies and programmes relating to rural development of the State, providing funds for programmes, monitoring and evaluation of the programmes. National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) came into existence on 12 July 1982 by transferring the agricultural credit functions of RBI and refinance functions of the then Agricultural Refinance and Development Corporation (ARDC). NABARD was dedicated to the service of the nation by the late Prime Minister Smt. Indira Gandhi. National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) is an apex development bank in India having headquarters based in Mumbai (Maharashtra) and other branches all over the country. The mission of NABARD was to Promote sustainable and equitable agriculture and rural prosperity through effective credit support, related services, institution development and other innovative initiatives. 144  RURAL DEVELOPMENT The District Rural Development Agency (DRDA) The District Rural Development Agency (DRDA) was constituted in 1980 as the principal organ at the district level to oversee the implementation of different anti-poverty programmes of the Ministry of Rural Development. The role of DRDA is to plan for effective implementation of anti - poverty programmes coordinating with other agencies like governmental, non-governmental, technical and financial for successful programme implementation. They enable the rural poor to participate in decision making process. Training Institutions Keeping in mind the importance of training and research for successful design and implementation of rural development programmes, training institutions have been created at the National level and State level like The National Institute of Rural Development (NIRD) and State Institute of Rural Development (SIRD) Role of NGO in Rural Development A non-governmental organization (NGO) is any non-profitable voluntary citizens' group which is organized on a local, national or international level. Task-oriented and driven by people with a 145 Gandhian Studies common interest, NGOs perform a variety of service and humanitarian functions, bring citizen concerns to Governments, advocate and monitor policies and encourage political particpation through provision of information. Some are organized around specific issues, such as human rights, environment or health. They provide analysis and expertise, serve as early warning mechanisms and help monitor and implement international agreements. Their relationship with offices and agencies of the United Nations system differs, depending on their goals, their venue and the mandate of a particular institution. In India, the scope of development is not narrow but very wide, as it includes not just the economic development but the growth on social front, quality of life, empowerment, women and child development, education and awareness of its citizens. The task of development is so huge and complicated that just implementing government plans is not sufficient to fix the problem. To achieve this, a holistic vision and collaborative efforts involving various departments, agencies and even NGOs is required. Owing to such a great need, the number of NGOs in India is increasing rapidly and at present, there are about 25,000 to 30,000 active NGOs in India. NGOs or Non-Governmental Organizations have more benefits working in rural areas compared to governmental organizations because NGOs are more flexible. NGOs are specific to a particular locality and moreover these are committed towards serving the public and community as a whole. As the task of development is massive, many NGOs are playing vital role in the rural development of India in collaboration with the government. Let us do: Comment on the role of NGO's in rural development 146  RURAL DEVELOPMENT Khadi and Village Industries Commission (KVIC) Khadi and Village Industries Commission (KVIC), is a statutory organization engaged in promoting and developing Khadi and Village Industries created by the Act of Parliament (No.61 of 1956 and as amended by Act No.12 of 1987), Khadi and Village Industries Commission was established in April 1957, taking over the former All India Khadi and Village Industries Board. The Khadi and Village Industries Commission is entrusted the planning, promotion, organization and implementation of programmes for the development of Khadi and Village Industries in rural areas, in co-ordination with other agencies engaged in rural development. Up to 1987-88, KVIC was entrusted with twenty six Village Industries. However, through an amendment of KVIC Act in 1987, the definition of Village Industries was changed without altering the definition of Khadi. Let us do: Prepare a short note on KVIC Kudumbashree - AKerala Initiative Have you heard of kudumbashree? What are their activities ? Kudumbashree was launched by the Government of Kerala in1998 for wiping out absolute poverty from the State through concerted community action under the leadership of Local Self 147 Gandhian Studies Governments. Kudumbashree is today one of the largest women- empowering projects in the country. The programme has 41 lakh members and covers more than 50% of the households in Kerala. The Kudumbashree initiative has today succeeded in addressing the basic needs of the less privileged women by providing them a more dignified life and a better future through three critical components, micro-credit, entrepreneurship and empowerment,. Literal meaning of Kudumbashree is prosperity (shree) of family (Kudumbam). Kudumbashree was conceived as a joint programme of the Government of Kerala and Nabard implemented through Community Development Societies (CDSs) of Poor Women, which serve as the community wing of Local Governments. Kudumbashree is formally registered as the "State Poverty Eradication Mission" (SPEM), a society registered under the Travancore Kochi Literary, Scientific and Charitable Societies Act 1955. It has a governing body chaired by the State's Minister of Local Self Government. There is a state mission with a field officer in each district. This official structure supports and facilitates the activities of the community network across the state. 148  RURAL DEVELOPMENT At the grass root level Kudumbashree has Neighbourhood Groups (NHG in short) that send representatives to the ward level Area Development Societies (ADS). The ADS sends its representatives to the Community Development Society (CDS), which completes the unique three-tier structure of Kudumbashree. Today, there are 2.58 lakhs NHGs, over 19,700 ADSs and 1072 CDSs in Kudumbashree. It is this network that brings women to the Grama Sabhas and helps them bring the needs of the poor to the attention of the local governments. The Community Development Societies are also very active in Government programmes and play significant roles in development activities ranging from socio-economic surveys and enterprise development to community management and social audit. Through its efforts to engage women in civil society in development issues and opportunities, Kudumbashree in association with the local self government of Kerala is charting out new meaning and possibilities for local economic development and citizen centric governance. Rural Development for Nation Building Rural Development is not only needed for ensuring food security but also to boost the Gross National Product of the nation. Fortunately, India has plenty of natural resources, idle labour, necessary technology and good market both in India and abroad. Presently, the people engaged in agriculture lack motivation and organizational strength at the grassroot level. We need to act before it is too late. 149 Gandhian Studies Rural development connotes overall development of rural areas to improve the quality of life of the rural people. In Rural development programmes priority is given to the marginalized, poor and deprived section of society. It encompasses all aspects of rural life including nature and its elements. Gandhiji's approach to rural reconstruction was holistic and people centered. It was rooted in his conviction based on of truth and non violence and goodness of human beings. He placed a balanced approach on moral, spiritual and economic motives as a means of overall development. Before independence, a few social workers having a philanthropic bent of mind, initiated rural reconstruction programmes mostly in isolation from one another and without any or very little government assistance. Approach to rural development in independent India started as a multipurpose approach in the year 1952. The realization of the widening disparities led to a new policy thrust from 1970 onwards through a number of target groups and area oriented programmes. Towards the close of 1970's and beginning of 1980's the Government of India under took several measures to launch a direct attack on poverty. For this purpose they launched so many programmes which included training programmes, credit and subsidy schemes, self employment supporting schemes, social assistance schemes etc. Government reviewed the multiplicity of development programmes in rural areas and restructured all the poverty alleviation programmes from 1999 onwards. Generally the main implementing authority of rural development programmes are Central government and State Governments. Government agencies are DRDA. NABARD,VEO's, Blocks, Panchayats etc. Besides this some social work agencies, NGO's, co-operative societies etc have also participated in implementing various programmes. 150  RURAL DEVELOPMENT Need Completely Partially improvement Analyze the concepts and elements of rural development Examine Gandhi's views on rural re- construction List out the various rural development strategies in India Explain various rural development programmes in detail Examine Gandhian view of rural reconstruction Examine recent programmes related to rural development Suggest various strategies for rural development Evaluate the functioning of a Kudumbasree Analyze Role of NGO's and KVIC in rural development Explain Rural development implementing agencies 151 Gandhian Studies Sample questions Prepare a short note on rural development. Gandihiji's vision of rural reconstruction was a holistic approach. Examine. Prepare a write up on the given rural development programmes. IRDP, MGNREGA and SGSY. Explain sporadic approaches of rural development in India. Prepare a short note on NABARD. Do you think that NGOs have a vital role in rural development? Write a note on Technological Package Approaches to rural development. Reference Textbook of Rural Development, Sagar Mondal and G. L. Ray, Kalyani publishers Sociology of Rural Development - Raghavendra Pratap Singh, Discovery Publishing House Rural Development - Dr. Gopal Lal Jain, Mangal Deep Publications Rural Development: Principles, Policies and Management - Kartha Singh, Sage Publications Rural Development and Programme - Pradeep Kumar, Omega Publications 152 RURAL ADMINISTRATION 153 Gandhian Studies What is administration? Think and share: Administration is defined as the act of managing duties, What was the nature of rural responsibilities, business, administration in Ancient India? institutions or rules. Rural Administration in Ancient India In ancient times, in India a sort of village council or an association of the residents of the village that often consisted of village elders had existed. The Gram Sangha or the Panhayat performed distinct administrative and judicial functions. Manusmriti or code of Manu has the reference of Gram Sangha. Gram Sangha also finds importance in the epics such as Mahabharata and Ramayana. Moreover, Kautilya's Arthashastra and Nitishastra of Sukracharya also contain mention of the Gram Sangha or Sansad. Ancient India was predominantly an agricultural society and the basic unit was the self governing system. The villages were governed by their elected Panchayats. Every year the Panchayats were elected. In addition to that, during Buddhist period, there were Regional councils or Janapadas, City councils or Nagara Sabhas as well as Paura Sabhas and the village assemblies or Gram Sabhas. The Paura Sabhas were presided over by a leading citizen. Panchayat System in India throughout the period of Mahabharata included Paura Sabhas and Janapadas who put a check on arbitrary exercise of authority. Simultaneously with the monarchial form of government in India, the Panchayat system prevailed. In ancient India the basic unit of administration was the village. Prosperity of state depended upon peace and prosperity of the villages. In Vedic times the head of village was called "Gramin". Meetings and committees were given greater importance in local 154  RURAL ADMINISTRATION administration of those times. Each village had its own meetings or committees. Decision was taken based on majority of votes after discussions in the meetings and committees. Administration of village was managed by panchayat. Panchayat means an organization for administration of village. The word 'Panchayat, evolved from the Sanskrit word 'Pancha' which means 'five'. Thus the word Panchayat literally meant governance by a 'council of five' members. Panchayats are considered as the sense organs of the village life. The village chief was considered as the brain of the village. It was believed that the five persons were like "Panch Parameshwar" possessed with divine qualities. Maurya period The Mourya empire was divided into several States, Janpads and Villages for the effective administration. The States near to the capital (Mahajanapads) were under the control of the King. The other states were controlled by the members (Rajakur) from the Royal family. They existed in the mode of central legislative system. The states were divided into Janpads under the administration of Stanikas and all villages under the administration of Graminies. The administrative activities of each village were under the control of a village headman called 'Gopa'. The villages worked as autonomous bodies. In Maurya period the administration of cities was a developed one. Local self governments were there in almost all cities including Pataliputra. There existed a municipal council comprising of 30 members. This municipal council was again sub divided into 6 councils of 5 members each. These councils were 155 Gandhian Studies in charge of craft, commerce and sales tax. The membership of the committee was hereditary. Gupta period Gupta empire was divided into several small provinces called 'Deshakhadakams' for the convenience of administration. The largest province was called 'Bhukti'. The administration of Bhuktis was done by Viceroys who were appointed from among the members of Royal family. Each Bhukti was sub divided into districts named 'Vishayas'. Each district was ruled by 'Ayakthan'. Here Village was the smallest unit of the nation and each viliage was under the control of a Gramikan. Chola (II) period During the period of Chola II a nominal village administration system existed in South India. Chola empire was divided into 8 provinces called 'Mandalas'. Mandalas again divided into 'Valanadus' and Valanadus were subdivided into 'Nadus'. The group of autonomous villages were called 'Kottam'. The rights and responsibilities of the village administration was entrusted upon the village folk. Each and every village was 156  RURAL ADMINISTRATION autonomous and self sufficient. The administration of the village was done by a village committee comprising of all adults of the village. Two type of committees existed named as 'Ur' and 'Sabha'. Ur contained all classes of people and ‘Sabha’ contained only Brahmins. Sabha had extensive powers. Serious matters like welfare of the people were discussed here. Each Sabha was divided into different panchayats and each panchayat had its own duties and responsibilities. There were different panchayats for maintaining revenue, construction, water supply, law and order etc. The members of the panchayat were selected through election and also through lucky draw (Lucky dip). Panchayats under British rule Have you heard of Panchayats? What is the importance of Panchayats ? The primary focus of the British Raj was on trade and it had little to do with governance and development. The local governments were hardly their first priority. In fact till the advent of the British rule in India, the rural republic had flourished and thrived. With the emergence of the British Raj in India, panchayats ceased to play a role that it once played. But, local self government as a representative institution was the creation of the British. In the initial days, the interest of the British was limited to the creation of local bodies with nominated members. These bodies were built around trading centers. Thus in the year 1687, a municipal corporation came to be formed in Madras. Set up on the British model of town council, this body was empowered to levy taxes for building, guild halls and schools. As time passed, similar bodies were set up in other major towns and this model became prevalent, helping the British to widen their taxation power. It was Lord Mayo, the then Viceroy of India (1869 to 1872), who felt the need to decentralize powers in order to bring about 157 Gandhian Studies administrative efficiency and in the year 1870 introduced the concept of elected representatives in the urban municipalities. The revolt of 1857 had put the imperial finances under considerable strain and it was found necessary to finance local service out of local taxation. Therefore it was out of fiscal compulsion that Lord Mayo's resolution on decentralization came to be adopted. British intiative The intiative taken by the British Government for the reform of rural administration are as follows. Rippon Resoultion -1882 Royal Commission on Decentralization -1907 Bristish Initiatves Government of India Act- 1909 (Minto-Morley Reforms) Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms of - 1919 Government of India Act- 1935 Government of India Act (1935) This is considered as another important stage in the evolution of panchayats in British India. With popularly elected government in the provinces, almost all provincial administrations felt duty bound to enact legislations for further democratization of local self-government institutions, including village panchayats. Although the popular government in the provinces governed by the Congress vacated office following the declaration of Second World War in 1939, the position as regards local government institutions remained unchanged till August 1947, when the country attained independence. 158  RURAL ADMINISTRATION Even though the British government did not have interest in village autonomy, they were forced to do so, in order to continue their rule in India and to meet financial necessities. The Indian rural republic had flourished till the advent of British. It received a set back during the British rule. Self contained village communities and their panchayats ceased to get substance. They were replaced by formally constituted institutions of village administration. In the highly centralized system of British rule, village autonomy seems to have lost. Features of the act was 1. Decided to stop Diarchy in Indian provinces and provided provisional autonomy 2. All India federation came into being 3. This act introduced for the first time direct elections 4. The act mentioned about the duties of municipal corporation, district boards, other provincial institutions and village legislature mentioned the importance of local self government system in Round Table Conference. This was also reflected in 1935 Act. GANDHIJI'S VISION OF PANCHAYATI RAJ Discuss Gandhiji's views on Democracy and Panchayat raj According to Gandhiji "Democracy must in essence mean the art and science of mobilizing the entire physical, economic and spiritual resources of all the various sections of the people in the service of the common good of all" He believed "a democracy enlightened and disciplined is the first thing in the world". The basic unit of true democracy is the village. It is in this 159 Gandhian Studies context that the notion of Panchayati Raj has added significance. Gandhi's perception of the Indian village system is all comprehensive, fundamental and important. The towns in India became quite insignificant before his eyes. Gandhi wrote, "I would like to go and live in villages. That is real India, my India" In Gandhiji's view the village communities are little republics, having nearly everything they want for themselves, and almost independent of any foreign relations. They seem to last where nothing else lasts. Gandhi thought that the village community would build up a strong sense of local strength and solidarity, provide meaningful interpersonal relationships, encourage a sense of social responsibility and spirit of co-operation, and act as a nursery of civic virtue. Gandhiji's concept of democratic decentralisation bears the stamp of his passionate belief in non-violence, truth and individual freedom. He calls it Panchayati Raj or village Swaraj. He wants to see each village as a little republic, self-sufficient in its vital wants, organically and non-hierarchically linked with the larger spatial bodies and enjoying the maximum freedom of deciding the affairs of the locality. Gandhi wanted political power to be distributed among the villages in India. Gandhi preferred the term 'Swaraj' to describe what he called true democracy. This democracy is based upon freedom. Individual freedom in Gandhi's view could be maintained only in autonomous, self-reliant communities that offer opportunities to the people for fullest participation. The affairs are to be managed by Panchayats consisting of five persons elected annually. Gandhi aimed at making the individual the centre of the local administration. People are expected to take personal interest and turn up in large numbers at the meeting to deliberate problems of common interest such as village industries, agricultural production, irrigation and planning. Gandhiji made it very clear that concentration of either economic or political power would violate all the essential principles of participatory democracy. To him Village is the lowest 160  RURAL ADMINISTRATION unit of a decentralized system. Politically a village has to be small enough to permit everyone to participate directly in the decision- making process. It is the basic institution of participatory democracy. The technical skills of the villages will be fully developed; there will be no dearth of men with high degree of skill and artistic talent. There will be village poets, village artists, village architects, linguists and research workers. According to Mahatma Gandhi, utilization of the local resources is quite fundamental to the development of the Panchayati Raj system. The Panchayats with the Gram Sabhas should be so organized as to identify the resources locally available for development in the agricultural and industrial sectors. Gandhian structure of Panchayati Raj According to Gandhiji, "Independence must begin at the bottom. Thus every village will be a republic or Panchyat having full powers. Every village has to be self sustained and capable of managing its affairs even to the extent of defending itself against the whole world. In his structure composed of innumerable villages there will be ever-widening, never ascending circles. Life will not be a pyramid with the apex sustained by the bottom. But it will be an oceanic circle whose centre will be the individual always ready to perish for village, the latter ready to perish for the circle of villages, till at last the whole becomes one life composed of individuals, never aggressive in their arrogance but ever humble, sharing the majesty of the oceanic circle of which they are integral units. Therefore, the outermost circumference will not wield power to crush the inner circle but give strength to all within and derive its own from the centre". Gandhian concept of Panchayati Raj envisaged the generation of power from below. Furthermore, Gandhian approach to decentralization implies the creation of Panchayats that can achieve self-sufficiency and self-reliance as a bulwark against exploitation. Gandhiji has seen Panchayati Raj as not just a 161 Gandhian Studies political arrangement but as a way of life, one in which the highest human qualities can be nurtured and attained. But Panchayati Raj, as has been conceived and implemented in the country, has made the local institution dependent on State governments in numerous ways. Decentralization is seen as coming from the above, as a generosity of the state government. Let us do: Prepare and present the features of Gandhiji's panchayat raj system. Panchayati Raj in Independent India The task of strengthening panchayati raj system fell on the Indian government formed after Independence. It was clear that India, a country of villages, had to strengthen village panchayats to strengthen democracy. Mahatma Gandhi who strongly believed in Grama Swaraj pleaded for the transfer of power to the rural masses. According to him the villages should govern themselves through elected panchayats. But surprisingly, the draft Constitution prepared in 1948 had no place for Panchayati Raj Institutions. Gandhiji was severely criticized this and called for immediate attention. It is thus, that panchayat finds a place in the Directive Principles of the State Policy. Article 40 of the Directive Principles of the State Policy states that 'the states shall take steps to organize village panchayats and endow them with such powers and authority as may be necessary to enable them to function as units of self government'.The most important aspect to strengthen grassroot democracy was neglected by the Constitution makers as Directive Principle of State Policy is not legally binding on the governments. The first organized effort to tackle the problem of rural India was made through Community Development Programme in 1952 and National Extension Service in 1953. The programme was based on an integrated approach to the various aspects of rural development. The objectives were to promote self-help and self-reliance among the rural people, to generate 162  RURAL ADMINISTRATION a process of integrated social, economic and cultural change with the aim of transforming social and political life of the villagers. Community Development Programme was launched in 55 selected blocks. The programme was based on an integrated approach to the various aspects of rural development. The programme made provisions for appointing Block Development Officers [BDO] and Village Level Workers [V.L.W]. This programme was intended to bring socio-economic development of the rural masses on democratic lines, but failed to take off along the expected lines due to the absence of an effective instrument for people's participation. Balwantrai Mehta Committee 1957 Balwantrai Mehta Committee was the first Committee to be set up in 1957 to look into the problems of democratic decentralization in independent India. The Committee was asked to report on community development projects. The Committee made far reaching recommendations in the direction of democratic decentralization and rural reconstruction. It pointed out that the community development programme was not successful because it failed to evoke local initiative and that in the absence of local initiative and local interest, development would not be possible. The committee laid down five fundamental principles. 1. There should be three tier structures of local self government bodies from village to the district level and these bodies should be linked together. 2. There should be genuine transfer of power and responsibility to these bodies to enable them to discharge their responsibility. 3. Adequate resources should be transferred to these bodies to enable them to discharge their responsibilities. 4. All welfare and developmental schemes and programmes at all three levels should be channelled through these bodies. 163 Gandhian Studies 5. The three tier system should facilitate further devolution and disposal of power and responsibility in future. The committee envisaged three-tier system of panchayats known as Zilla Parishad, Panchayat Samiti and Gram Panchayat and recommended encouragement of peoples' participation in community work, promotion of agriculture and animal husbandry, promoting the welfare of the weaker sections and women through the panchayats. For the first time the Committee made recommendations for co-opting two women who are interested to work for women and children. However, like the rest of the male members, women were not to be elected but were to be co-opted. The recommendations of the Balwantrai Mehta Committee came into effect on 1st April 1958. Rajasthan was the first state to implement it on 2nd October 1959. By mid 1960s, panchayat had reached all parts of the country. More than 2,17,300 village panchayats covering over 96% of the 5,79,000 inhabited villages and 92% of rural population had been established. There was enthusiasm in rural India and people felt that they had a say in the affairs affecting their daily life. These were considered as the promising days of Panchayati Raj Institutions in India. The report of the Ministry of Community Development had stated in 1964- 65 that younger and better leadership was emerging through Panchayati Raj Institutions and there was a fairly high degree of satisfaction among the people with the working of the panchayats. Ashok Mehta Committee (1977) The Janata government of Morarji Desai appointed a Committee in 1977 with Ashok Mehta as chairman and was entrusted with the task of enquiring into the causes responsible for the poor performance of Panchayati Raj Institutions. It was also asked to suggest measures to strengthen Panchayati Raj Institutions. The committee 164 suggested two-tire system of Panchayati Raj  RURAL ADMINISTRATION consisting of Zilla Parishads at the district level and Mandal Panchayats at the grass root level as against three-tier system suggested by the Balwantrai Mehta Committee. The committee recommended constitutional protection to the Panchayati Raj Institutions and further decentralization of power at all levels. The Ashok Mehta Committee Suggested the following recommendations 1. Reservation of seats for the weaker sections. 2. Two seats for women. 3. Adequate financial resources for the panchayats. 4. Constitutional backing for panchayats. 5. People's participation in developmental activities. Due to the fall of the Janata government, the Ashok Mehta Committee's recommendations were not implemented. Few states including Karnataka formulated new legislation on the basis of the recommendations of this Committee. Both the Committees overlooked the importance of panchayats as units of self- government. P.K. Thungon Committee A new initiative was begun under the leadership of Rajiv Gandhi in 1988, which was headed by P.K. Thungon. The committee recommended that Panchayati Raj bodies should be constitutionally recognized and the Constitution should have a provision to ensure timely and regular election to these bodies and their term should be five years. This is a sub-committee to the Parliamentary Consultative Committee attached to Ministry of Personnel, Public Grievances and pensions. This committee was to consider the type of political and administrative structure needed for district planning. It has recommended that, 165 Gandhian Studies 1. Constitutional provision for regular elections and 5 years term for the local bodies. 2. Zilla Parishad should be the only planning and development agency in district. 3. State-level planning coordination committee under chairmanship of PM and the presidents of Zilla Parishad be the members. 74th Amendment Act, 1992 Rajiv Gandhi the then Prime Minister of India, introduced the 3rd 74th Amendment bill on local government on 15th May, 1989 in the Parliament, but it failed to get the required support. A second attempt was made in September 1990 to pass the bill in the Parliament. The bill however was not even Rajiv Gandhi taken up for consideration. In September 1991, a fresh bill on Panchayati Raj was introduced by the Congress government under P. V Narasimha Rao, the then Prime Minister. It was passed in 1992 as the 73rd Amendment Act 1992 with minor modifications and came into force on 24th April 1993. P. V Narasimha Rao The Salient Features of the Act are: The Act provided for the establishment of grama sabha in each village. It will be a body comprising of all the adult members registered as voters in the panchayat area. Their shall be a three-tier system of panchayat at village, intermediate and district levels. Smaller states with population below 20 Lakhs will have option not to have intermediate level 166 panchayat.  RURAL ADMINISTRATION Seats in panchayats at all the three level shall be filled by direct election. In addition, the chairperson of the village panchayat can be made member of the panchayat at the intermediate level. MP, MLA, MLC, could also be member of panchayat at the intermediate and the district level. In all the panchayats, seats should be reserved for SCs and STs in proportion to their population and 1/3 of the total number of seats will be reserved for women. Offices of the chairperson of the panchayat at all levels shall be reserved in favour of SCs and STs in proportion to the population of the state. One-third of the offices of chairperson of panchayats at all levels shall also be reserved for women. Legislature of the state shall be at liberty to provide reservation of seats and office of chairperson in panchayat in favour of backward class citizens. Panchayats shall have a uniform five year term and elections to constitute new bodies shall be completed before the expiry of term. In the event of dissolution, election will be compulsorily held within six months. The reconstituted panchayat will serve for the remaining period of the five year term. It will not be possible to dissolve the existing panchayats by amendment of any Act before the expiry of its duration. A person who is disqualified under any law, election to the legislature of the state or under any of the state will not be entitled to become a member of a panchayat. Independent election commission will be established in the state for superintendence, direction, and control of the electoral process and preparation of electoral rolls. Specific responsibilities will be entrusted to the panchayats to prepare plans for economic development and social justice in respect of matters listed in XI Schedule. For the implementation of development schemes, main responsibility will be entrusted to the panchayats. 167 Gandhian Studies The panchayats will receive adequate funds for carrying out their plans. Grants from state government will constitute an important source of funding but state government is also expected to assign the revenue of certain taxes to the panchayats. In some cases, panchayat will also be permitted to collect and retain the revenue it raises. In each state, finance commission will be established within one year and after every five years to determine principles on the basis of which adequate financial resource would be entrusted to the panchayats. Gram Sabha In the wake of the 73 rd Think and share: Constitution Amendment, Gram Sabha has been Have you heard about Gram Sabha?, introduced in all the states. How does the Gram Sabha function? But the no menclature differs from state to state. 'Gram Sabha' means a body consisting of persons registered in the electoral rolls relating to a village comprised within the area of Panchayat at the village level. This was a model of democracy at the grass roots based on direct participation by the people. Democracy has been defined as, 'a government where everybody has a say'. A democratic administration by a Panchayat cannot be a good substitute for it'. The