GNS105 Modern Agriculture & Rural Development PDF

OLABISI ONABANJO UNIVERSITY OPEN AND DISTANCE LEARNING CENTRE AGO – IWOYE GNS105: Modern Agriculture and Rural Development GNS105: Modern Agriculture & Rural Development List of Other Contributors to the Original Lecture Note Manuscripts On behalf of the Directorate of General Studies (GNS), the commitment of the following members of the teaching faculty in the College of Agricultural Sciences, Yewa Campus, Ayetoro who have contributed immensely to the preparation of this study material, is highly appreciated. They are: Adegoke, A.T. - Lecturer/Engineer, Department of Crop Production Adeokun, O.A. - Professor, Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural Sociology Awotide, D.O - Reader, Department of Agricultural Economics and Farm Management Durojaiye, A.F - Assistant Lecturer, Department of Forestry, Wildlife and Fisheries Fadipe, M.O - Lecturer, Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural Sociology Ilori, A.R - Lecturer, Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural Sociology Odusanya, O.A - Lecturer, Department of Crop Production Ogungbesan, A.M - Reader, Department of Animal Production Ojetayo, T.A - Assistant Lecturer, Department of Forestry, Wildlife and Fisheries Oladoja, M.A - Professor, Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural Sociology Olubanjo, O.O - Professor, Department of Agricultural Economics & Farm Management Olurin, K.B - Professor, Department of Fisheries, Wildlife and Forestry Management Oyetunji, O.T - Assistant Lecturer, Department of Forestry, Wildlife and Fisheries Sosanya, O.S - Reader, Department of Crop Production Sule, S.O - Lecturer II, Department of Forestry, Wildlife and Fisheries Page 2 of 251 GNS105: Modern Agriculture & Rural Development General Introduction You are welcome to this interesting course that will give you a practical view into the practice of agriculture within the Nigerian context - GNS 105: Modern Agriculture and Rural Development. In addition to acquiring basic knowledge in one of the compulsory courses on your way to achieving a degree under the open and distance learning of the Olabisi Onabanjo University, this course will expose you to some of the essential practices required to run a successful, income- generating agricultural venture to earn a living, and (or) to augment your means of livelihood as a student. The course - GNS 105: Modern Agriculture and Rural Development – is a general two-unit course to be registered and passed by all students of Olabisi Onabanjo University in a bid to acquire the various degrees in their different field of study. The course is divided into eleven (11) Study Sessions. This course guide gives an overview of what GNS105 is all about, the textbooks and other needed materials, what you expect to know in each Session and how to work through the course materials in a self-study and self-assessment manner. Recommended Study Time This course is a 2-Unit course divided into 11 study sessions. Students are advised to spend at least 2 hours in studying the content of each study Unit. What you are about to Learn in this Course? As mentioned earlier on, the objective of this course is to introduce students to a practical approach into the practice of agriculture within the Nigerian context. Page 3 of 251 GNS105: Modern Agriculture & Rural Development Course Aim The main aim of this course is to introduce students to the rudiments of crop, livestock, fisheries and forest resources production and management techniques. Course Objectives Each session has specific objectives. Learners are required to understand the objectives of each session before proceeding to subsequent sessions. You should always revise the objectives of each session to ensure that you have done what is required of you by the end of the session. However, the overall objectives of this course are listed below. Upon the completion of this course, learners should be able to: 1. Understand the general overview of agriculture in the Nigerian context 2. Discuss the formation, constitution and administration of the Nigerian rural areas 3. Identify common economic opportunities in the Nigerian Agricultural system 4. Discuss the common cultural practices and agricultural systems in Nigeria 5. Understand the scope, practices and operations in agricultural mechanisation 6. Explain the principles of livestock management and rearing of livestock for food and income generation 7. Adopt and apply simple technology in aquaculture and small-scale fish production 8. Understand the basic principles of management techniques to agricultural practice 9. Comprehend the basic concepts in agricultural extension and information dissemination among small-scale farmers 10. Apply the essential approaches to develop a framework for healthy living through the science of food and nutrition 11.Identify the importance and usefulness of forestry products and simple techniques in the management of wildlife and forest-based resources Page 4 of 251 GNS105: Modern Agriculture & Rural Development Working through this Course In order to thoroughly understanding this course, learners will be required to read and understand the content of this study material, and practice the suggested questions in the study material. This course is designed to cover approximately fifteen (15) weeks of lectures. Learners are required to get familiarised with the course content and relate as much as possible with their e- tutors for further explanation of technical terms and sessions. Assessment There are two aspects to the assessment of this course. First, the tutor-marked assignments (TMAs) which makes up 30%, and second, the written examination which accounts for 70% of the total score. Learners are expected to participate in these two aspects of the examination to be able to earn a pass mark at the end of the semester. The tutor-marked assignments must be submitted to the e-tutor for grading and assessment as and when due. The final written examination will normally come up at the end of the semester after course lectures have been taken. Tutor-Marked Assignment (TMA) It is mandatory for learners to participate in all the TMAs in this course. All the TMAs must be submitted to the e-tutor for grading, and the attention of the e-tutor must be called to it whenever there are reasons for not completing any assignments within the stipulated time for the possibility of extending the date for submission. Final Examination and Grading The final examination for GNS105 will last for a period of 2 hours and it accounts for 60% of the total course grade. The examination will consist of questions similar to those that the students have come across in the Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs), In-text Questions (ITQs) and tutor marked assignments. The questions will cover the entire aspects of the course taught. Usually, Page 5 of 251 GNS105: Modern Agriculture & Rural Development the examinations will comprise the aspect to be taken in the form of Pen-On-Paper (POP) and the aspect which involves the Computer Based Testing (CBT) method. Tutors and Tutorials At the tail end of the semester and few weeks before the semester examination, learners may be required to undergo a face-to-face tutorial period to support what was learnt on-line. Students will be notified of the dates, time and location together with the name and phone number of their tutors as soon as they are allocated to a tutorial group. The e-tutor will mark and comment on the assignments submitted, keep a close watch on the level of students’ progress and on any difficulties they might encounter, and also provide assistance to them during the course. Students must submit their tutor-marked assignment (TMAs) to their tutor well before the due date. The assignments will be marked by the tutor and returned to the student as soon as possible, following the same manner in which they were submitted. Students should not hesitate to contact their tutors by telephone, e-mail or discussion board if they need help. Tutors could be contacted if:  You do not understand any part of the lecture material  You have difficulty with the self-test or exercise  You have questions on, or problems with an assignment, with your tutor’s comments on an assignment or with the grading of an assignment. Students should endeavour to attend the end-of-semester tutorial classes so as to raise any unanswered questions that may require further clarifications with their tutors. To gain the maximum benefit from the end-of-semester course tutorial classes, students must have prepared their questions ready and make them handy to be actively discussed and tackled in the discussion classes. Undoubtedly, students will learn a lot from participating actively in the discussion and interactive sessions. Page 6 of 251 GNS105: Modern Agriculture & Rural Development Table of Contents Table of Contents............................................................................................................................ 7 Study Session 1: Overview of Nigerian Agriculture.................................................................... 27 Introduction............................................................................................................................... 27 Learning Outcomes for Study Session 1................................................................................... 27 1.1 Historical development of agriculture in Nigeria............................................................. 28 In-Text Questions (ITQs) 1.1................................................................................................ 31 In-Text Answers (ITAs) 1.1.................................................................................................. 31 1.2 Later efforts at Agricultural Development in Nigeria.................................................... 32 In-Text Questions (ITQs) 1.2................................................................................................ 33 In-Text Answers (ITAs) 1.2.................................................................................................. 33 1.3 Roles of Agriculture in National Development................................................................ 33 In-Text Questions (ITQs) 1.3................................................................................................ 34 In-Text Answers (ITAs) 1.3.................................................................................................. 34 1.4 The Challenges of Agriculture in Nigeria...................................................................... 35 In-Text Questions (ITQs) 1.4................................................................................................ 35 In-Text Answers (ITAs) 1.4.................................................................................................. 35 Page 7 of 251 GNS105: Modern Agriculture & Rural Development 1.5 Some Suggested Solutions for Overcoming the Challenges.......................................... 36 In-Text Questions (ITQs) 1.5................................................................................................ 37 In-Text Answers (ITAs) 1.5.................................................................................................. 37 Summary of Study Session 1.................................................................................................... 39 Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 1......................................................... 40 SAQ 1.1 (Test Learning Outcomes 1.1)............................................................................... 40 SAQ 1.2 (Test Learning Outcomes 1.2)............................................................................... 40 SAQ 1.3 (Test Learning Outcomes 1.3)............................................................................... 40 SAQ 1.4 (Test Learning Outcomes 1.4)............................................................................... 40 SAQ 1.5 (Test Learning Outcomes 1.5)............................................................................... 40 Study Session 2: Sociology of Nigeria Rural Areas................................................................. 42 Introduction............................................................................................................................... 42 Learning Outcomes for Study Session 2................................................................................... 42 2.1 Distinguishing Factors Responsible for Rural-Urban Differentiation.............................. 43 In-Text Questions (ITQs) 2.1................................................................................................ 47 In-Text Answers (ITAs) 2.1.................................................................................................. 47 2.2 Rural Social Institutions in Nigeria................................................................................ 48 2.2.1 Family Institution.................................................................................................... 48 Page 8 of 251 GNS105: Modern Agriculture & Rural Development 2.2.2 Marriage institution................................................................................................. 50 2.2.3 Education as an Institution in Rural Nigeria........................................................... 51 In-Text Questions (ITQs) 2.2................................................................................................ 53 In-Text Answers (ITAs) 2.2.................................................................................................. 53 2.3 Religion and Belief Systems in Rural Nigeria............................................................... 53 In-Text Questions (ITQs) 2.3................................................................................................ 55 In-Text Answers (ITAs) 2.3.................................................................................................. 55 2.4 Rural Economic Institutions in Nigeria.......................................................................... 55 2.4.1 The Significance of Economic Institutions to Rural Dwellers............................... 56 In-Text Questions (ITQs) 2.4................................................................................................ 57 In-Text Answers (ITAs) 2.4.................................................................................................. 57 2.5 The Concept of Rural Development............................................................................... 57 2.5.1 Problems of Rural Development in Nigeria............................................................ 58 In-Text Questions (ITQs) 2.5................................................................................................ 58 In-Text Answers (ITAs) 2.5.................................................................................................. 58 2.5.2 Significance of Rural Development Effort............................................................. 58 In-Text Questions (ITQs) 2.5.2............................................................................................. 59 In-Text Answers (ITAs) 2.5.2............................................................................................... 59 Page 9 of 251 GNS105: Modern Agriculture & Rural Development Summary of Study Session 2.................................................................................................... 61 Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 2......................................................... 62 SAQ 2.1 (Test Learning Outcomes 2.1)............................................................................... 62 SAQ 2.2 (Test Learning Outcomes 2.2)............................................................................... 62 SAQ 2.3 (Test Learning Outcomes 2.3)............................................................................... 62 SAQ 2.4 (Test Learning Outcomes 2.4)............................................................................... 62 SAQ 2.5 (Test Learning Outcomes 2.5)............................................................................... 62 Study Session 3: Economic Opportunities in Agriculture............................................................ 64 Introduction............................................................................................................................... 64 Learning Outcomes for Study Session 3................................................................................... 64 3.1 Crop Production............................................................................................................. 65 3.1.1 Rice Production....................................................................................................... 65 3.1.2 Mushrooms Production........................................................................................... 66 In-Text Questions (ITQs) 3.1................................................................................................ 68 In-Text Answers (ITAs) 3.1.................................................................................................. 68 3.2 Livestock Production...................................................................................................... 68 3.2.1 Pig Production......................................................................................................... 68 In-Text Questions (ITQs) 3.2................................................................................................ 69 Page 10 of 251 GNS105: Modern Agriculture & Rural Development In-Text Answers (ITAs) 3.2.................................................................................................. 69 3.3 Fish Farming (or Aquaculture)....................................................................................... 69 In-Text Questions (ITQs) 3.3................................................................................................ 71 In-Text Answers (ITAs) 3.3.................................................................................................. 71 3.4 Food Processing............................................................................................................. 71 In-Text Questions (ITQs) 3.4................................................................................................ 72 In-Text Answers (ITAs) 3.4.................................................................................................. 72 3.5 Forestry........................................................................................................................... 72 3.5.1 Teak Production...................................................................................................... 72 In-Text Questions (ITQs) 3.4................................................................................................ 73 In-Text Answers (ITAs) 3.4.................................................................................................. 73 Summary of Study Session 3.................................................................................................... 75 Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 3......................................................... 76 SAQ 3.1 (Test Learning Outcomes 3.1)............................................................................... 76 SAQ 3.2 (Test Learning Outcomes 3.2)............................................................................... 76 SAQ 3.3 (Test Learning Outcomes 3.3)............................................................................... 76 SAQ 3.4 (Test Learning Outcomes 3.4)............................................................................... 76 Study Session 4: Cultural Practices, Agricultural and Farming Systems........................... 80 Page 11 of 251 GNS105: Modern Agriculture & Rural Development Introduction............................................................................................................................... 80 Learning Outcomes for Study Session 4................................................................................... 80 4.1 Cultural Practices........................................................................................................... 81 In-Text Questions (ITQs) 4.1................................................................................................ 83 In-Text Answers (ITAs) 4.1.................................................................................................. 83 4.2 Agricultural Systems...................................................................................................... 84 In-Text Questions (ITQs) 4.2................................................................................................ 84 In-Text Answers (ITAs) 4.2.................................................................................................. 84 4.3 Farming Systems............................................................................................................ 84 4.3.1 Arable Farming....................................................................................................... 85 4.3.2 Mixed Farming........................................................................................................ 85 4.3.3 Livestock/Pastoral Farming.................................................................................... 85 In-Text Questions (ITQs) 4.3................................................................................................ 87 In-Text Answers (ITAs) 4.3.................................................................................................. 87 4.4 Farming/Cropping Practices........................................................................................... 87 4.4.1 Shifting Cultivation...................................................................................................... 87 4.4.2 Continuous Cropping.............................................................................................. 88 In-Text Questions (ITQs) 4.4................................................................................................ 92 Page 12 of 251 GNS105: Modern Agriculture & Rural Development In-Text Answers (ITAs) 4.4.................................................................................................. 92 Summary of Study Session 4.................................................................................................... 94 Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 4......................................................... 95 SAQ 4.1 (Test Learning Outcomes 4.1)............................................................................... 95 SAQ 4.2 (Test Learning Outcomes 4.2)............................................................................... 95 SAQ 4.3 (Test Learning Outcomes 4.3)............................................................................... 95 SAQ 4.4 (Test Learning Outcomes 4.4)............................................................................... 95 Study Session 5: Agricultural Mechanization............................................................................... 97 Introduction............................................................................................................................... 97 Learning Outcomes for Study Session 5................................................................................... 97 5.1 Constraints to Agricultural Mechanization in Nigeria................................................... 98 In-Text Questions (ITQs) 5.1................................................................................................ 98 In-Text Answers (ITAs) 5.1.................................................................................................. 98 5.2 Agricultural Processing.................................................................................................. 99 In-Text Questions (ITQs) 5.2.............................................................................................. 100 In-Text Answers (ITAs) 5.2................................................................................................ 100 5.3 Farm Machinery and their Characteristics................................................................... 100 5.3.1 General Requirements of a Functioning Farm Machine....................................... 101 Page 13 of 251 GNS105: Modern Agriculture & Rural Development 5.3.2 Types of Farm Implements....................................................................................... 101 5.3.3 Tractors...................................................................................................................... 102 In-Text Questions (ITQs) 5.3.............................................................................................. 104 In-Text Answers (ITAs) 5.3................................................................................................ 104 5.4 Soil Tillage and Tillage Machinery.............................................................................. 105 5.4.1 Tillage Methods.................................................................................................... 105 5.4.2 Types of Tillage systems...................................................................................... 106 In-Text Questions (ITQs) 5.4.............................................................................................. 107 In-Text Answers (ITAs) 5.4................................................................................................ 107 Summary of Study Session 5.................................................................................................. 108 Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 5....................................................... 109 SAQ 5.1 (Test Learning Outcomes 5.1)............................................................................. 109 SAQ 5.2 (Test Learning Outcomes 5.2)............................................................................. 109 SAQ 5.3 (Test Learning Outcomes 5.3)............................................................................. 109 SAQ 5.4 (Test Learning Outcomes 5.4)............................................................................. 109 Study Session 6: Livestock Management................................................................................... 111 Introduction............................................................................................................................. 111 Learning Outcomes for Study Session 6................................................................................. 111 Page 14 of 251 GNS105: Modern Agriculture & Rural Development 6.1 Livestock Management System................................................................................... 112 6.1.1 Housing................................................................................................................. 114 6.1.2 Animal nutrition.................................................................................................... 116 In-Text Questions (ITQs) 6.1.............................................................................................. 118 In-Text Answers (ITAs) 6.1................................................................................................ 118 6.2 Principles of Livestock Management........................................................................... 119 In-Text Questions (ITQs) 6.2.............................................................................................. 121 In-Text Answers (ITAs) 6.2................................................................................................ 122 Summary of Study Session 6.................................................................................................. 123 Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 6....................................................... 124 SAQ 6.1 (Test Learning Outcomes 6.1)............................................................................. 124 SAQ 6.2 (Test Learning Outcomes 6.2)............................................................................. 124 Study Session 7: Introductory Aquaculture and Small-Scale Fish Production.................. 126 Introduction............................................................................................................................. 126 Learning Outcomes for Study Session 7................................................................................. 126 7.1 Importance of Aquaculture to the National Economy...................................................... 127 In-Text Questions (ITQs) 7.1.............................................................................................. 127 In-Text Answers (ITAs) 7.1................................................................................................ 127 Page 15 of 251 GNS105: Modern Agriculture & Rural Development 7.2 Objectives of Aquaculture............................................................................................ 128 In-Text Questions (ITQs) 7.2.............................................................................................. 128 In-Text Answers (ITAs) 7.2................................................................................................ 128 7.3 Fish Identification....................................................................................................... 128 In-Text Questions (ITQs) 7.3.............................................................................................. 131 In-Text Answers (ITAs) 7.3................................................................................................ 131 7.4 Aquaculture Systems in Nigeria's Fishery Sector........................................................ 132 7.4.1 Factors to be considered in the establishment of an aquaculture enterprise............. 133 7.4.2 Selection of fish species for culture...................................................................... 133 In-Text Questions (ITQs) 7.4.............................................................................................. 134 In-Text Answers (ITAs) 7.4................................................................................................ 134 7.5 Pond Construction Techniques..................................................................................... 134 In-Text Questions (ITQs) 7.5.............................................................................................. 135 In-Text Answers (ITAs) 7.5................................................................................................ 136 7.6 Aquaculture Management Techniques......................................................................... 136 7.6.1 Fish Nutrition........................................................................................................ 137 7.6.2 Fish Breeding Techniques..................................................................................... 137 7.6.3 Pollution in Aquatic Environment........................................................................ 138 Page 16 of 251 GNS105: Modern Agriculture & Rural Development 7.6.4 Disease Management in Aquaculture................................................................... 138 7.6.5 Post-Harvest Value Addition................................................................................ 139 7.6.6 Record Keeping.................................................................................................... 140 7.6.7 Fisheries Regulation and Administration................................................................... 140 In-Text Questions (ITQs) 7.6.............................................................................................. 140 In-Text Answers (ITAs) 7.6................................................................................................ 141 Summary of Study Session 7.................................................................................................. 142 Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 7....................................................... 143 SAQ 7.1 (Test Learning Outcomes 7.1)............................................................................. 143 SAQ 7.2 (Test Learning Outcomes 7.2)............................................................................. 143 SAQ 7.3 (Test Learning Outcomes 7.3)............................................................................. 143 SAQ 7.4 (Test Learning Outcomes 7.4)............................................................................. 143 SAQ 7.5 (Test Learning Outcomes 7.5)............................................................................. 143 SAQ 7.6 (Test Learning Outcomes 7.6)............................................................................. 143 Study Session 8: Farm Management........................................................................................... 146 Learning Outcomes for Study Session 8................................................................................. 146 8.1 Theory of Agricultural Production............................................................................... 147 8.1 Agricultural Production................................................................................................ 147 Page 17 of 251 GNS105: Modern Agriculture & Rural Development 8.1.1 Factors of Production............................................................................................ 147 In-Text Questions (ITQs) 8.1.............................................................................................. 149 In-Text Answers (ITAs) 8.1................................................................................................ 149 8.2 Characteristics of Agriculture that Affect Management Decisions............................. 149 In-Text Questions (ITQs) 8.2.............................................................................................. 151 In-Text Answers (ITAs) 8.2................................................................................................ 151 8.3 Some Basic Tools and Concepts in Management........................................................ 152 8.3.1 Agricultural Finance............................................................................................. 152 8.3.2 The Law of Diminishing Returns......................................................................... 154 8.3.3 The Principle of Substitution................................................................................ 155 8.3.4 Opportunity Costs................................................................................................. 155 8.3.5 Absolute and Comparative Advantage................................................................. 155 8.3.6 Farm Planning and Budgeting.............................................................................. 156 8.3.7 Valuation and Depreciation.................................................................................. 161 In-Text Questions (ITQs) 8.3.............................................................................................. 163 In-Text Answers (ITAs) 8.3................................................................................................ 163 8.4 Management of Farm Businesses................................................................................. 164 Summary of Study Session 8.................................................................................................. 166 Page 18 of 251 GNS105: Modern Agriculture & Rural Development Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 8....................................................... 167 SAQ 8.1 (Test Learning Outcomes 8.1)............................................................................. 167 SAQ 8.2 (Test Learning Outcomes 8.2)............................................................................. 167 SAQ 8.3 (Test Learning Outcomes 8.3)............................................................................. 167 Study Session 9: Agricultural Extension and Teaching Methods........................................... 169 Introduction............................................................................................................................. 169 Learning Outcomes for Study Session 9................................................................................. 169 9.1 Objectives of Agricultural Extension Services............................................................ 170 In-Text Questions (ITQs) 9.1.............................................................................................. 170 In-Text Answers (ITAs) 9.1................................................................................................ 170 9.2 Main Principles of Extension....................................................................................... 171 In-Text Questions (ITQs) 9.2.............................................................................................. 173 In-Text Answers (ITAs) 9.2................................................................................................ 173 9.3 Problems of Agricultural Extension in Nigeria............................................................ 174 In-Text Questions (ITQs) 9.3.............................................................................................. 176 In-Text Answers (ITAs) 9.3................................................................................................ 176 9.4 Extension Teaching Methods....................................................................................... 177 9.4.1 Individual Contact Methods.................................................................................. 177 Page 19 of 251 GNS105: Modern Agriculture & Rural Development 9.4.2 Group Contact Methods........................................................................................ 181 In-Text Questions (ITQs) 9.4.............................................................................................. 184 In-Text Answers (ITAs) 9.4................................................................................................ 185 9.5 Mass Media as an Extension Method........................................................................... 185 In-Text Questions (ITQs) 9.5.............................................................................................. 188 In-Text Answers (ITAs) 9.5................................................................................................ 188 9.6 Teaching-Learning Interaction..................................................................................... 188 Summary of Study Session 9.................................................................................................. 191 Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 9....................................................... 192 SAQ 9.1 (Test Learning Outcomes 9.1)............................................................................. 192 SAQ 9.2 (Test Learning Outcomes 9.2)............................................................................. 192 SAQ 9.3 (Test Learning Outcomes 9.3)............................................................................. 192 SAQ 9.4 (Test Learning Outcomes 9.4)............................................................................. 192 SAQ 9.5 (Test Learning Outcomes 9.5)............................................................................. 192 Study Session 10: Introduction to Nutrition and Food Science.................................................. 194 Learning Outcomes for Study Session 10............................................................................... 194 10.1 Activities of Nutritionists, Food Scientists and Technologists................................. 195 In-Text Questions (ITQs) 10.1............................................................................................ 196 Page 20 of 251 GNS105: Modern Agriculture & Rural Development In-Text Answers (ITAs) 10.1.............................................................................................. 196 10.2 Malnutrition.............................................................................................................. 197 In-Text Questions (ITQs) 10.2............................................................................................ 198 In-Text Answers (ITAs) 10.2.............................................................................................. 198 10.3 Nature of Nutritional Problems................................................................................ 199 In-Text Questions (ITQs) 10.3............................................................................................ 200 In-Text Answers (ITAs) 10.3.............................................................................................. 200 10.4 Nutrients and their Importance................................................................................. 200 In-Text Questions (ITQs) 10.4............................................................................................ 206 In-Text Answers (ITAs) 10.4.............................................................................................. 207 Summary of Study Session 10................................................................................................ 208 Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 10..................................................... 209 SAQ 10.1 (Test Learning Outcomes 10.1)......................................................................... 209 SAQ 10.2 (Test Learning Outcomes 10.2)......................................................................... 209 SAQ 10.3 (Test Learning Outcomes 10.3)......................................................................... 209 SAQ 10.4 (Test Learning Outcomes 10.4)......................................................................... 209 Study Session 11: Introduction to Forestry and Wildlife Management...................................... 211 Introduction............................................................................................................................. 211 Page 21 of 251 GNS105: Modern Agriculture & Rural Development Learning Outcomes for Study Session 11............................................................................... 211 11.1 Types of Vegetation in Nigeria................................................................................ 212 In-Text Questions (ITQs) 11.1............................................................................................ 212 In-Text Answers (ITAs) 11.1.............................................................................................. 212 11.2 Forest and its functions............................................................................................. 213 In-Text Questions (ITQs) 11.2............................................................................................ 214 In-Text Answers (ITAs) 11.2.............................................................................................. 214 11.3 Importance of Forestry and Wildlife Conservation.................................................. 215 In-Text Questions (ITQs) 11.3............................................................................................ 216 In-Text Answers (ITAs) 11.3.............................................................................................. 216 11.4 Objectives of Wildlife Conservation in Nigeria....................................................... 217 In-Text Questions (ITQs) 11.4............................................................................................ 218 In-Text Answers (ITAs) 11.4.............................................................................................. 218 11.5 Destruction and Restoration of FOREST and its RESOURCES............................. 219 11.5.1 Forest Destruction (Deforestation)....................................................................... 219 11.5.2 Forest Restoration (Aforestation)......................................................................... 219 In-Text Questions (ITQs) 11.5............................................................................................ 220 In-Text Answers (ITAs) 11.5.............................................................................................. 220 Page 22 of 251 GNS105: Modern Agriculture & Rural Development 11.6 Forest Products/Produce........................................................................................... 220 In-Text Questions (ITQs) 11.6............................................................................................ 221 In-Text Answers (ITAs) 11.6.............................................................................................. 222 Summary of Study Session 11................................................................................................ 223 Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 11..................................................... 224 SAQ 11.1 (Test Learning Outcomes 11.1)......................................................................... 224 SAQ 11.2 (Test Learning Outcomes 11.2)......................................................................... 224 SAQ 11.3 (Test Learning Outcomes 11.3)......................................................................... 224 SAQ 11.4 (Test Learning Outcomes 11.4)......................................................................... 224 SAQ 11.5 (Test Learning Outcomes 11.5)......................................................................... 224 SAQ 11.6 (Test Learning Outcomes 11.6)......................................................................... 225 Notes on Self-Assessment Questions for Study Session 1..................................................... 227 SAQ 1.1............................................................................................................................... 227 SAQ 1.2............................................................................................................................... 227 SAQ 1.3............................................................................................................................... 227 SAQ 1.4............................................................................................................................... 227 Notes on Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) 1.5.............................................................. 228 Notes on the re-assembled Self-Assessment Questions for Study Session 2......................... 229 Page 23 of 251 GNS105: Modern Agriculture & Rural Development SAQ 2.1............................................................................................................................... 229 SAQ 2.2............................................................................................................................... 229 SAQ 2.3............................................................................................................................... 229 SAQ 2.4............................................................................................................................... 229 SAQ 2.5............................................................................................................................... 230 Notes on the re-assembled Self-Assessment Questions for Study Session 3......................... 230 SAQ 3.1............................................................................................................................... 230 SAQ 3.2............................................................................................................................... 231 SAQ 3.3............................................................................................................................... 231 SAQ 3.4............................................................................................................................... 231 Notes on the re-assembled Self-Assessment Questions for Study Session 4......................... 232 SAQ 4.1............................................................................................................................... 232 SAQ 4.2............................................................................................................................... 232 SAQ 4.3............................................................................................................................... 233 SAQ 4.4............................................................................................................................... 233 Notes on the re-assembled Self-Assessment Questions for Study Session 5......................... 234 SAQ 5.1............................................................................................................................... 234 SAQ 5.2............................................................................................................................... 234 Page 24 of 251 GNS105: Modern Agriculture & Rural Development SAQ 5.3............................................................................................................................... 235 SAQ 5.4............................................................................................................................... 236 Notes on the re-assembled Self-Assessment Questions for Study Session 6......................... 236 SAQ 6.1............................................................................................................................... 236 SAQ 6.2............................................................................................................................... 236 Notes on the re-assembled Self-Assessment Questions for Study Session 7......................... 237 SAQ 7.1............................................................................................................................... 237 SAQ 7.2............................................................................................................................... 237 SAQ 7.3............................................................................................................................... 237 SAQ 7.4............................................................................................................................... 238 SAQ 7.5............................................................................................................................... 239 SAQ 7.6............................................................................................................................... 239 Notes on the re-assembled Self-Assessment Questions for Study Session 8......................... 240 SAQ 8.1............................................................................................................................... 240 SAQ 8.2............................................................................................................................... 240 SAQ 8.3............................................................................................................................... 241 SAQ 8.4............................................................................................................................... 242 Notes on the re-assembled Self-Assessment Questions for Study Session 9......................... 242 Page 25 of 251 GNS105: Modern Agriculture & Rural Development SAQ 9.1............................................................................................................................... 242 SAQ 9.2............................................................................................................................... 243 SAQ 9.3............................................................................................................................... 243 SAQ 9.4............................................................................................................................... 244 SAQ 9.5............................................................................................................................... 244 Notes on the Re-assembled Self-Assessment Questions for Study Session 10...................... 245 SAQ 10.1............................................................................................................................. 245 SAQ 10.2............................................................................................................................. 246 SAQ 10.3............................................................................................................................. 246 SAQ 10.4............................................................................................................................. 246 Notes on the re-assembled Self-Assessment Questions for Study Session 11....................... 247 SAQ 11.1............................................................................................................................. 247 SAQ 11.2............................................................................................................................. 247 SAQ 11.3............................................................................................................................. 248 SAQ 11.4............................................................................................................................. 249 SAQ 11.5............................................................................................................................. 250 SAQ 11.6............................................................................................................................. 250 Page 26 of 251 GNS105: Modern Agriculture & Rural Development Study Session 1: Overview of Nigerian Agriculture Introduction Agriculture encompasses a wide variety of specialties covering many topical issues ranging from crop/livestock production and agro-processing to marketing and home economics, nutrition and dietetics. Specific foods include cereals, vegetables, fruits, fibres and meat. Divisions of agriculture The main divisions of agriculture includes agronomy (production of crop plants); soil science (soil and land management problems); horticulture (production of vegetables, flowers and ornamentals crops); crop protection (study of pests, diseases and weeds control); plant entomology and pathology (study of pests and disease-causing organisms); agricultural economics (cost and returns from production, processing and distribution of agricultural produce); agricultural extension and rural sociology (bridging the gap between the farming communities and the researchers); animal science (livestock production and management); and farm mechanization/agricultural engineering (use of machines or improved technologies to increase and improve agricultural productivity). Learning Outcomes for Study Session 1 At the end of this session, you would have learnt the following subject matter: 1.1 Historical development of agriculture in Nigeria 1.2 Efforts at Agricultural development in Nigeria 1.3 Roles of Agriculture in National Development 1.4 The Challenges of Agriculture in Nigeria 1.5 Some Suggested Solutions for Overcoming the Challenges of Agriculture in Nigeria Page 27 of 251 GNS105: Modern Agriculture & Rural Development 1.1 Historical development of agriculture in Nigeria Agriculture has played a key role in the development of human civilisation. Until the industrial revolution, the vast majority of the human population was engaged in agriculture. Technological development and improved techniques have steadily increased agricultural productivity, and the widespread diffusion of these technologies during a period of time is often called an agricultural revolution. Since its development roughly 10,000 years ago, agriculture has expanded vastly in geographical coverage and yields with new technologies and new improved crops integration. Agricultural practices such as irrigation, crop rotation, fertilisers and pesticides were developed long ago, but have made great strides in the past century. The history of agriculture has played a major role in human history, as agricultural progress has been a crucial factor in worldwide socio-economic change. Wealth-building and militaristic specialisations rarely seen in hunter-gatherer cultures are commonplace in societies which practice agriculture. So, too are arts such as epic literature and monumental architecture, as well as codified legal systems. When farmers became capable of producing food beyond the needs of their own families, others in their society also became free to devote themselves to projects other than food acquisition. Historians and anthropologists have long argued that the development of agriculture made civilisation possible. The agricultural history of Nigeria is intertwined with its political history and this is discussed broadly in the context of the varying constitutional frameworks, viz: Colonial, the Internal Self Government and the Post-1960 periods, according to sectors. Crop Production: The period of the colonial administration in Nigeria, 1861-1960, was punctuated by rather ad hoc attention to agricultural development. During the era, considerable emphasis was placed on research and extension services. The first notable activity of the era was the establishment of a botanical research station in Lagos by Sir Claude McDonald in 1893. This was followed by the acquisition of 10.4km of land in 1899 by the British Cotton Growing Association (BCGA) at Ibadan for experimental work on cotton. The site location was named the Page 28 of 251 GNS105: Modern Agriculture & Rural Development Moor-Plantation Experimental Area. In 1912, a Department of Agriculture was established in each of the then Southern and Northern Nigeria but the activities of the Department were virtually suspended between 1913 and 1921 as a result of the First World War and its aftermath. From the late 1930s to the mid-1940s, there were significant intensification and expansion of research activities, and extension and training programmes of the Agricultural Developments. Additional facilities for the training of junior staff in agriculture were provided as well as scholarships for agricultural students at Yaba Higher College and Imperial College of Tropical Agriculture in Trinidad. The intensification of hostilities during the Second World War (1939- 1945) led to the slowing down of activities and the call to Departments of Agriculture to play increasing roles in the production of food for the army and civilians in the country and the Empire. Production of export crops like palm produce and rubber which could not be obtained from Malaysia as a result of Japanese war activities in South-East Asia, and such food items as sugar, wheat, milk, eggs, vegetables, Irish potatoes and rice whose importation was prevented by naval blockade of the high seas increased. A special production section of the Department of Agriculture was set up to deal with the situation. On the research side, attention was devoted largely to the possibilities of evolving permanent systems of agriculture that were capable of replacing rotational bush-fallowing systems prevalent in the country and realising the promises of mixed farming in the North. During this period the WAIFOR (West African Institute for Oil Palm Research) in Benin was started and the research on cocoa was intensified at Moor Plantation, Owena near Ondo and at Onigambari near Ibadan. Achievements of the period include the development of ‘Alien cotton’ in the South; rice cultivation in Sokoto, Niger, Ilorin, Abeokuta and Ondo provinces; the introduction of wheat cultivation in the core northern parts of the Northern provinces; the expansion of the production of such export crops as cocoa, oil palm and groundnut; development of agricultural implements as well as the designing of farm buildings; intensification of horticultural activities; the development of a marketing section of the Department; the extension of the Produce Inspection Page 29 of 251 GNS105: Modern Agriculture & Rural Development Service to cover all principal export crops; investigations into the possibilities for organised land settlement schemes; and investigations into the possibilities of irrigation in northern Nigeria. The period of Internal Self Government, 1951-1960, began with the regionalisation of the Departments of Agriculture in 1951, with a Director and an Inspector-General of Agriculture in each region. By October 1954, the post of Inspector-General of Agriculture was abolished as a result of the creation of Departments. The Federal Department of Agricultural Research was retained since constitutional provisions placed agricultural research on the concurrent legislative list, while extension work remained a regional responsibility. The findings of the Federal Research Stations were to be transmitted through Regional ministries responsible for agriculture and natural resources. Livestock Production: This was dominated by nomadic pastoralism in Nigeria long before the advent of the British Colonial Administration. The immediate interest of the colonial government in livestock was with the health and hygiene of the domesticated cattle. Thus the Nigerian Veterinary Department was established in 1914 with its headquarters at Zaria, Kaduna State. In 1924, a small veterinary laboratory was established in Vom, Jos for the production of rinderpest serum. Increased field services raised the demands on the laboratory. Hence, the production of vaccines and other biological products was added to the functions of the laboratory. The recognition of the advantages of Vom as the centre for veterinary research and for vaccine production, coupled with the major emphasis on the health aspects of livestock production, led to the transfer of the headquarters of the Nigerian Veterinary Department from Zaria to Vom. The role of educational advancement in agricultural development in Nigeria was given prominence at an earlier stage. The acquisition of elementary education by farmers in the three Regions was appreciated and it was suggested that the introduction of new areas of interest into the farming systems, such as the production of livestock in the Southern provinces of Nigeria, would attract more youths into the agriculture sector. A scheme was started in Katsina province for teaching sons of farmers the best husbandry methods. Instructions were essentially practical in nature and were centred on mixed farming. Similarly, the study of management of livestock Page 30 of 251 GNS105: Modern Agriculture & Rural Development was introduced into the Agricultural School at Ibadan, where the Education and Agricultural Departments cooperated to train both teachers responsible for the management of the school farms and the agricultural assistants for the Department of Agriculture. A Veterinary School was established at Vom in the early 1940s to train Nigerians for animal health work. A Livestock Investigation Centre (LIC) was also set up as an auxiliary organ to the school and laboratory. Later, an egg production unit was created to supply fertile eggs for virus research, vaccine for both the Veterinary and Medical Departments and Poultry for research work and vaccine testing. The Nigerian Veterinary Department played a very prominent role in the early history of livestock development in Nigeria. The serious nature of trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness) in man and (‘nagana’ disease) in cattle was also of great concern to the Colonial Administration in the West African territories, and the need to control this disease led to the establishment of a West African Institute for Trypanosomiasis Research (WAITR) in 1947. The main laboratory used for the study of the animal disease was sited in Vom in Jos, Plateau State, being an ideal location since the disease vector was absent in the area. The Western Nigeria Development Corporation (WNDC) established the Upper Ogun Ranch for the commercial production and distribution of cattle. In the Eastern Region, South Devon cattle were introduced at the Obudu Ranch; Friesian bulls were imported to the farm at Agege, Lagos; the Teaching and Research Farm, University of Ibadan obtained foundation stock of cattle from Shika. Extensive facilities were also established for research in poultry and piggery. The administrative machinery for agricultural development and coordination was also modified. In-Text Questions (ITQs) 1.1 List the two main aspects of agricultural production In-Text Answers (ITAs) 1.1 i. Crop production ii. Livestock production Page 31 of 251 GNS105: Modern Agriculture & Rural Development 1.2 Later efforts at Agricultural Development in Nigeria The post-1960 era was one of the periods of extensive planning and regional competition in agriculture. Concentration of attention on commodity exports, the utilisation of taxation policy by the Marketing Boards as an instrument of development finance, and the belief that food production activities could be undertaken through private initiatives without much governmental intervention, became the official farm policy. Under regional independence, the agricultural history of the nation entered a new phase which was the modification of traditional practices in view of the incapacity of food production to meet the needs of the ever rising population and the inability of the producers to re-invest in land. The 1962-1968 Development Plan was Nigeria’s first national plan. Among several objectives, it emphasised the introduction of more modern agricultural methods through farm settlements (e.g. hydraulic hand presses for oil processing and a greatly expanded agricultural extension service. Some of the specialized development schemes initiated or implemented during this period included: (i) Farm Settlement Schemes (ii) National Accelerated Food Production Programme (NAFPP) launched in 1972. There were also a number of agricultural development intervention experiments, notably (i) Operation Feed the Nation (OFN) launched in 1976 (ii) River Basin and Rural Development Authorities established in 1976 (iii) Green Revolution Programme inaugurated in 1980 and (iv) The World Bank-funded Agricultural Development Projects (ADPs). While each of the above programmes sought to improve food production, the ADPs represented the first practical demonstration of the integrated approach to agricultural developmrnt in Nigeria. The experiment which started as a pilot project with World Bank funding began at Funtua, Gusau and Gombe in 1974, moved to Ayangba and Lafia in 1977, Bida in 1979, Ilorin in 1980, Ekiti-Akoko in 1981 and Saki (Oyo-North) in 1982 as agricultural development projects. Following the successful negotiations for multi-state agricultural development projects with the World Bank, each State of the country and the Federal Capital, Abuja, now has one ADP. The Page 32 of 251 GNS105: Modern Agriculture & Rural Development years since the early 1960s have also witnessed the establishment of several agricultural research institutes and their extension research liaison services. Some of the major institutions are: 1. Agricultural Extension and Research Liaison Service (AERLS) at the Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, established in 1963 2. The International Institute for Tropical Agriculture (IITA) at Ibadan 3. The Institute of Agricultural Research and Training (I.A.R & T), Moor-Plantation, Ibadan. 4. The National Cereals Research Institute (NCRI), Badeggi 5. The International Livestock Centre for Africa (ILCA). In-Text Questions (ITQs) 1.2 List the agricultural research institutes and their extension research liaison services established as part of the earlier efforts in agricultural development in Nigeria. In-Text Answers (ITAs) 1.2 1. Agricultural Extension and Research Liaison Service (AERLS) at the Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, established in 1963 2. The International Institute for Tropical Agriculture (IITA) at Ibadan 3. The Institute of Agricultural Research and Training (I.A.R & T), Moor-Plantation, Ibadan. 4. The National Cereals Research Institute (NCRI), Badeggi 5. The International Livestock Centre for Africa (ILCA). 1.3 Roles of Agriculture in National Development Agriculture has always been the main stay of the Nigerian economy. Some of the roles of agriculture are discussed below: 1. Source of food: Food is sine qua non to human existence and it can be of plant or animal origin. Agriculture provides food in the form of cereals, roots and tubers, fruits and vegetables, meat, eggs, and milk etc for consumption in a fresh (natural) or processed Page 33 of 251 GNS105: Modern Agriculture & Rural Development form. A country that is self sufficient in food production will not need to import food and thus have resources for further development. 2. Source of raw materials to industries: Agriculture supplies input in the form of raw materials to most industries and thus plays a tremendous role in a country’s industrial development. The paper, confectionaries, beverages, textiles, tyres and household-use industries all depend on agricultural produce like pulp wood, cereal grains, cocoa, coffee, cotton, para-rubber, palm oil etc 3. Source of national income: Prior to the discovery of petroleum in Nigeria at Oloibiri in 1957, a lot of developmental and social infrastructure owe their origin and existence to agriculture. The then University of Ife (now Obafemi Awolowo University) and the famous Cocoa House building in Ibadan are classical examples of the good use of Agricultural proceeds. 4. Employment generation: Agriculture provides direct employment for farmers and indirect employment for drivers, middlemen, processors, food vendors, etc. in Nigeria. Agriculture and other agro-allied industries provide employment opportunities for about 60-70% of the populace. 5. Source of foreign exchange earnings and a means of international trade: Agricultural produce, when exported, fetch foreign currency for the country which is used in the growth of the economy and the nation. Nigeria exports agricultural produce such as cassava, cocoa, coffee, timber, rubber, oil palm, tea, hides and skins etc. 6. A tool for development: Agriculture plays a great role in the transformation of rural areas. Influx of traders to agric producing areas helps to attract infrastructure such as good roads, pipe borne water, schools, hospitals etc to such areas. In-Text Questions (ITQs) 1.3 What are the roles of agriculture in the development of a nation? In-Text Answers (ITAs) 1.3 i. Source of food for human and livestock consumption Page 34 of 251 GNS105: Modern Agriculture & Rural Development ii. Source of raw materials to industries iii. Source of national income iv. Employment generation v. Source of foreign exchange earnings and a means of international trade vi. A tool for national development 1.4 The Challenges of Agriculture in Nigeria In spite of its tremendous contributions to national development both now and in the past, agricultural development is besieged with many challenges some of which are outlined below: 1. Land tenure system and its attendant constraints 2. Lack of modern implements and machinery 3. High costs of inputs such as seed stocks, fertilisers, pesticides, etc. 4. Poor credit facilities and financing 5. Incidence of pests and diseases 6. Poor transportation and inadequate infrastructural facilities 7. Inadequate processing and storage facilities 8. Inadequacy of extension services 9. Inadequate marketing structures and facilities for agricultural produce which are highly perishable 10. Instability of price policies 11. Inconsistencies in government policies on agriculture. In-Text Questions (ITQs) 1.4 i. List the major challenges encountered in the area of agricultural development in Nigeria In-Text Answers (ITAs) 1.4 i. Land tenure system and its attendant constraints Page 35 of 251 GNS105: Modern Agriculture & Rural Development ii. Lack of modern implements and machinery iii. High costs of inputs such as seed stocks, fertilisers, pesticides, etc. iv. Poor credit facilities and financing v. Incidence of pests and diseases vi. Poor transportation and inadequate infrastructural facilities vii. Inadequate processing and storage facilities viii. Inadequacy of extension services ix. Inadequate marketing structures and facilities for agricultural produce which are highly perishable x. Instability of price policies xi. Inconsistencies in government policies on agriculture. 1.5 Some Suggested Solutions for Overcoming the Challenges 1. The Land Use Act of 1978 should be enforced and properly executed to enable genuine farmers have access to farmland 2. Local fabrication of farm implements as well as establishment of tractors and equipment hiring units and centres should be encouraged by government to boost agricultural production. 3. Government should continue her subsidy programmes on all agricultural inputs (crop and livestock) and ensure that these inputs get to the real farmers and not business men who will re-sell to farmers at high prices. 4. Banks should be encouraged to make loans available to farmers at a reduced interest rate. 5. Farmers should be encouraged and supported by government to form cooperative societies. 6. Research into pests and diseases that affect agricultural crops and livestock products should be given a boost. Government should strengthen pest and disease control units of the Federal and State Ministries of Agriculture. Agrochemicals should also be subsidised. 7. The construction and maintenance of roads particularly rural roads should be on regular basis. Users of infrastructures provided by government should see themselves as stakeholders Page 36 of 251 GNS105: Modern Agriculture & Rural Development and be concerned about how such infrastructures are used and maintained. 8. Due to the perishable and seasonal nature of agricultural produce, the construction of storage silos in production areas is advocated. The provision of processing facilities such as mills and graters will also boost production. 9. Regular training on advances in agricultural processing should be organized for farmers. Government, at various levels, can encourage farmers by buying off agricultural produce during harvest or surplus, organising storage and selling to the end users during scarcity. 10. Government should, as a matter of urgency see to the employment of qualified and adequate number of extension officers to serve as link between farmers and researchers. 11. The marketing of agricultural goods should be properly structured such that the farmers are no longer ‘ripped off’ by middlemen. Government should establish Agricultural Pricing and Marketing Boards. 12. Government should ensure that all agricultural policies are well conceived and implemented without somersault. The encouragement of private sector participation will further aid the development of the agricultural sector. In-Text Questions (ITQs) 1.5 i. Itemise some of the suggested solutions towards overcoming the challenges of agricultural development efforts in Nigeria In-Text Answers (ITAs) 1.5 i. Enforcement of the Land Use Act of 1978 and if properly executed it will enable genuine farmers access to farmland. ii. Local fabrication of farm implements and establishment of tractor and equipment hiring units and centers iii. Government subsidy programmes on agricultural inputs iputs) iv. Provision of banks loans Page 37 of 251 GNS105: Modern Agriculture & Rural Development v. Farmers should be encouraged and supported by government to form cooperative societies vi. Research into pests and diseases of agricultural produce and livestock should be encouraged vii. The construction and maintenance of rural roads on regular basis. viii. Construction of storage silos in production areas to keep perishable and seasonal produce ix. Regular training of farmers in processing encouragement of farmers by buying off agricultural produce during harvest or surplus, organizing storage and selingl to the end users during scarcity. x. Employment of qualified and adequate number of extension officers to serve as link between farmers and researchers. xi. Establishment of Agricultural Pricing and Marketing Boards in the marketing of agricultural goods to get rid of middlemen. xii. Proper monitoring/implementation of agricultural policies. Page 38 of 251 GNS105: Modern Agriculture & Rural Development Summary of Study Session 1 1. Agriculture is the cultivation of land (including water and forest resources) to produce food for man and his livestock. 2. The study of Agriculture is vast and multi-disciplinary, with each aspect of it specifically dealing with a wide range of activities which encompasses management of resources. 3. Agriculture is basically sub-divided into many branches, which include agronomy, soil science, horticulture, crop protection (subdivisions of entomology, pathology, weed science etc), farm mechanisation, plant/animal breeding and genetics, farming systems, plant/animal nutrition, food technology, agricultural economics, agricultural extension and rural sociology. Page 39 of 251 GNS105: Modern Agriculture & Rural Development Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 1 Having completed this study session, you can now assess yourself by going through the re- assembled set of questions again and provide the relevant answers without checking through the material. This will help you measure how well you have achieved the learning outcomes for the session. You can then re-check your answers with the Notes on Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) at the end of the Module. SAQ 1.1 (Test Learning Outcomes 1.1) What are the two main aspects of agricultural production that you know? SAQ 1.2 (Test Learning Outcomes 1.2) Enumerate the agricultural research institutes and their extension research liaison services established to foster rapid transformation of the industry in the wake of efforts geared towards agricultural development efforts in Nigeria. SAQ 1.3 (Test Learning Outcomes 1.3) Itemise the various roles that agriculture plays in the development of Nigeria as a nation. SAQ 1.4 (Test Learning Outcomes 1.4) List the major challenges confronting the process of agricultural development in Nigeria SAQ 1.5 (Test Learning Outcomes 1.5) Highlight concisely, the solutions canvassed for resolving the problems of agricultural development in Nigeria. Page 40 of 251 GNS105: Modern Agriculture & Rural Development References Adeyeye, S.A. (2002). Fundamental Principles of Agricultural Science. Megatrend Printers. 318pp Bolens, L. (1997). ‘Agricultural’ in Encyclopaedia of the history of Science technology and Medicine in Non-Western Culture’. Editor: Helaine Selin: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Dordrecht/Boston/London. Pp20-22. Collinson. M. (editor): A History of Farming System Research, CABI Publishing, 2000. ISBN 0-85199-405-9. Davis, Donald R., and Hugh D. Riordan (2004). Changes in USDA Food Composition Data for 43 Garden Crops, 1950 to 1999. Journal of the American College of Nutrition, Vol.23. No.6. 669-682. FAO, 2000, Agriculture: Towards 2015/30. The Technical Interim Report, Global Perspective Studies Unit, Rome. Iwena, O.A. (2002). Essentials of Agricultural Science. Tonads Publishers Limited. 293pp. The American Heritage Science Dictionary, 2002 by Company. United States Agency for International Development,2000. Sustainable Agriculture and Diversified Economic Growth, USAID/Nigeria Concept Paper (SO6). Wells Spencer, 2003. The Journey of Man: A Genetic Odyssey. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691- 11532-X. Page 41 of 251 GNS105: Modern Agriculture & Rural Development Study Session 2: Sociology of Nigeria Rural Areas Introduction Sociology is the scientific study of human life, rural society and social behavior, focusing on processes, patterns of organisation and conduct which are recurrent in society. The word rural also refers to areas with low population density, small size, and relative isolation, where the major economic activity is largely agricultural production. Rural settlements have between 100 and 200 households (Mundi 2006), and it refers to remote areas or places far away from the seat of government and having very few or no infrastructural facilities. The major concern of rural sociologists is with farmers, with agricultural occupations, and with problems of the farm people, their ways of making a living and other occupations influencing their lives. Communities cannot be categorized into two types but should be seen to represent various modernisation stages on a linear scale. For example, while towns like Lagos and Ibadan may portray maximum urban characteristics, some communities are typically rural, and between the two extremes are found communities at different stages of modernisation. Rural ——————————→—————————Urban Fig. 1: The Rural-Urban Continuum Learning Outcomes for Study Session 2 At the end of this session, you would have learnt the following: 2.1 Factors responsible for rural-urban differences 2.2 Rural social institutions in Nigeria 2.3 Family institution and their functions 2.4 Education as an institution in rural Nigeria 2.5 Religion and belief systems in rural Nigeria 2.6 Rural economic institutions in Nigeria and the concept of rural development. Page 42 of 251 GNS105: Modern Agriculture & Rural Development 2.1 Distinguishing Factors Responsible for Rural-Urban Differentiation The factors below are responsible for the general differences between rural and urban areas: 1. Size: Rural communities are usually smaller than urban communities. Size is particularly referred to as areas actually inhabited rather than the total area of land available for use. 2. Population Density and Composition: As rural areas have larger expanse of land with relatively small population, the population density (i.e. the number of people per unit area of land) is rather low. This is in contrast to urban areas where a larger number of people occupy relatively small unit areas. 3. Occupation: Occupation in rural areas in Nigeria comprises majorly agricultural enterprises such as crops and livestock production. Some rural people are engaged in non-agricultural enterprises such as petty trading, arts, craft, and weaving, pottery and primary industries; only a few take these as sole occupations. Instead they tend to combine these with farming, and a large number of these rural dwellers are full-time farmers. 4. Social Integration: This refers to a patterned relationship of one person with another through expressions of ideas, thoughts and actions aimed at achieving concrete goals. Social contacts are lesser in quantity, quality and variety in rural areas. 5. In rural areas, interaction takes place at water sites, on market days, in religious worship areas, cultural activities such as marriage and naming ceremonies, etc.. The quality and type of interaction among the urban dwellers is much more than that of rural dwellers. However, both the urban and rural dwellers are interdependent in the area of farm produce buying at the farm gate and traditional services. 6. Social Stratification: This has to do with the manner in which the society ranks its members into various social classes or hierarchy on the basis of wealth, birth, status, etc. The differences between the social classes in urban areas and rural areas are: i) Social classes are fewer in rural areas than in the urban areas Page 43 of 251 GNS105: Modern Agriculture & Rural Development ii) Social classes are closer in the rural areas than they are in the urban areas iii) There is more rigidity in caste and class principles or close systems in rural areas than in the urban areas. 7. Social Differentiation: The rural area is made up of many relatively independent families, communities and neighbourhoods. The rural dwellers deal with people of identifiable traits such as other farmers of the same religious groups, cultural, social and economic level. 8. Social mobility: This is the movement of an individual from one social class or group to another. Social mobility is rather slow in rural areas. People may move vertically from a lower class to a higher class or from a higher class to a lower class as a result of specific achievements through success in economic pursuits, education, political change, or job creation. Improvement in social infrastructure is bound to be more in the urban areas than in the rural areas. This is evident with the introduction of Universal Primary Education (UPE) in Nigeria in 1976 and free education in the South Western Nigeria. Most rural children with some acquired level of formal education migrated to the urban areas in search of better job opportunities. 9. Social Control: The behaviour of individuals in the rural areas tends to be guided more by the internalisation of societal norms and values. Informal means such as avoidance and gossips are used or applied to effect control on violation while instant justice is determined in cases of the violation of mores. Urban areas tend to depend more on formal institutions such as the police, traffic wardens, among others, for the maintenance of law and order. 10. Shortage or absence of social amenities and services: The rural areas are characterised by poor communication facilities, bad roads, inadequate medical services and hospitals, dilapidated school building and deficient educational facilities, absence of tap water but presence of locally constructed wells and natural water supply from streams and rivers. Transportation is generally by foot and canoe or by bicycle, motorcycle or bus for those that are prosperous. Page 44 of 251 GNS105: Modern Agriculture & Rural Development In spite of the lack of technology and poor physical infrastructure, the rural Nigerian societies produce and supply food and raw materials to their urban counterparts. 11. Rural land acquisition and tenure systems: Generally, in rural Nigeria, land is traditionally vested in the linage or community. As indicated by Otite and Akali (1990), in places such as Bini where land is vested in the community, the Oba theoretically owns and controls the use of land on behalf of his people. In some ethnic groups such as the Yoruba and Urhobo, control of land is vested in the lineage and managed by elders and leaders. In this, three main categories of land could be identified; these include land for building and settlement; farm land for agriculture and grazing: and community land for sacred places or shrines, markets and assemblies. 12. There are increasing new trends in the land ownership structure in the rural areas of Nigeria. This new trend is the individual ownership of land through purchase from family or community owners. This development has led to land speculation in rural areas in Nigeria. Hence, two main categories of land ownership now common in most rural areas in Nigeria are ownership by indigenous groups (land jointly belonging to the same lineage and community) and ownership by individuals (land acquired by individuals by purchase). It is noteworthy that as a result of efforts and interventions on the part of governance on the development of rural areas in last decades, the rural areas are becoming gradually transformed. The summary of such interventions is provided in Table 1. Table 1: Rural Development Programmes in Nigeria Programme Year of Target Group Nature of Intervention Establishment National Accelerated 1972 Rural farmers Development of improved Food Production crop varieties Programme (NAFPP) Operation Feed and 1975 Rural and Urban Boost in food production to Nation (OFN) residents improve the living standard of the masses, especially the rural farmers. The Green Revolution 1980 Rural farmers Improvement in the living standards of rural farmers. Page 45 of 251 GNS105: Modern Agriculture & Rural Development Directorate of Food, 1986 Rural areas Provision of feeder roads, Roads and Rural rural water supply and Infrastructure (DFRRI) electrification National Directorate of 1986 Unemployed youths Training, finance and Employment (NDE) guidance Better life for Rural 1987 Rural women Provision of self-help Women (BLRW) projects, rural development and skills acquisition programmes, and health care delivery Peoples Bank of Nigeria 1987 The underprivileged in Promoting savings and the (PBN) rural and urban areas use of micro-credit facilities Community Banks (CB) 1990 Rural residents, and Provision of banking urban micro enterprises facilities Family Support 1994 Families in rural areas Provision of facilities for Programme health care delivery, child welfare

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