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Ways of the World A Global History with Sources For AP*  p a r t o n e First Things First Beginnings in History to 500 b.c.e. Contents C...

Ways of the World A Global History with Sources For AP*  p a r t o n e First Things First Beginnings in History to 500 b.c.e. Contents Chapter 1. First Peoples; First Farmers: Most of History in a Single Chapter, to 4000 B.C.E. Chapter 2. First Civilizations: Cities, States, and Unequal Societies, 3500 B.C.E.–500 B.C.E.  th e b i g pi c ture Turning Points in Early World History Human beings have long been inveterate storytellers. Our myths, legends,“fairy tales,” oral traditions, family sagas, and more have sought to distill meaning from experience, while providing guidance for the living. Much the same might be said of modern historians, although they must operate within accepted rules of evidence. But all tell- ers of stories — ancient and modern alike — have to decide at what point to begin their accounts and what major turning points in those narratives to highlight. For world historians seeking to tell the story of humankind as a whole, four major “begin- nings,” each of them an extended historical process, have charted the initial stages of the human journey. The Emergence of Humankind Ever since Charles Darwin, most scholars have come to view human beginnings in the context of biological change on the planet. In considering this enormous process, we operate on a timescale quite different from the billions of years that mark the his- tory of the universe and of the earth. According to archeologists and anthropologists, the evolutionary line of descent leading to Homo sapiens diverged from that leading to chimpanzees, our closest primate relatives, some 5 million to 6 million years ago, and it happened in eastern and southern Africa. There, perhaps twenty or thirty differ- ent species emerged, all of them members of the Homininae (or hominid) family of human-like creatures. What they all shared was bipedalism, the ability to walk up- right on two legs. In 1976, the archeologist Mary Leakey uncovered in what is now Tanzania a series of footprints of three such hominid individuals, preserved in cooling volcanic ash about 3.5 million years ago. Two of them walked side by side, perhaps holding hands. Over time, these hominid species changed. Their brains grew larger, as evidenced by the size of their skulls. About 2.3 million years ago, a hominid creature known as Homo habilis began to make and use simple stone tools. Others started to eat meat, at least occasionally. By 1 million years ago, some hominid species, especially Homo erectus, began to migrate out of Africa, and their remains have been found in various parts of Eurasia. This species is also associated with the first controlled use of fire. Eventually all of these earlier hominid species died out, except one: Homo sapiens, ourselves. With a remarkable capacity for symbolic language that permitted the accu- mulation and transmission of learning, we too emerged first in Africa and quite re- cently, probably no more than 250,000 years ago (although specialists constantly debate these matters). For a long time, all of the small number of Homo sapiens lived in Africa, 3 4 part 1 / first things first: beginnings in history, to 500 b.c.e. GREENLAND (30,000–15,000 years ago) EUROPE NORTH (45,000 years ago) AMERICA ASIA (70,000 years ago) AT L A N T I C O C E A N (100,000 years ago) PAC I F I C O C E A N AFRICA PAC I F I C O C E A N Equator Equator SOUTH (3500 years ago) AMERICA (1500 years ago) (60,000–40,000 years ago) AUSTRALIA Easter INDIAN OCEAN Island (1000 years ago) (1500 years ago) NEW (by 12,500 years ago) ZEALAND Ice sheet (20,000 years ago) Land bridges (20,000 years ago) 0 1,000 2,000 miles Human expansion (dates for 0 1,000 2,000 kilometers earliest human occupation) A N TA RC T I C A Map 1.1 The Global Dispersion of Humankind (pp. 16–17) but sometime after 100,000 years ago, they too began to migrate out of Africa onto the Eurasian landmass, then to Australia, and ultimately into the Western Hemisphere and the Pacific islands. The great experiment of human history had begun. The Globalization of Humankind Today, every significant landmass on earth is occupied by human beings, but it was not always so. A mere half million years ago our species did not exist, and only 100,000 years ago that species was limited to Africa and numbered, some scholars believe, fewer than 10,000 individuals. These ancient ancestors of ours, rather small in stature and not fast on foot, were armed with a very limited technology of stone tools with which to confront the multiple dangers of the natural world. But then, in perhaps the most amazing tale in all of human history, they moved from this very modest and geographically limited role in the scheme of things to a worldwide and increasingly dominant presence.What kinds of societies, technologies, and understandings of the world accompanied, and perhaps facilitated, this globalization of humankind? The phase of human history during which these initial migrations took place is known to scholars as the Paleolithic era. The word “Paleolithic” literally means the “old stone age,” but it refers more generally to a food-collecting or gathering and hunting way of life, before agriculture allowed people to grow food or raise animals deliberately. Lasting until roughly 11,000 years ago, the Paleolithic era represents over 95 percent of the time that human beings have inhabited the earth, although it ac- counts for only about 12 percent of the total number of people who have lived on the  the big picture: turning points in early world history 5 planet. It was during this time that Homo sapiens colonized the world, making them- selves at home in every environmental niche, from the frigid Arctic to the rain for- ests of Central Africa and Brazil, in mountains, deserts, and plains. It was an amazing achievement, accomplished by no other large species. Accompanying this global mi- gration were slow changes in the technological tool kits of early humankind as well as early attempts to impose meaning on the world through art, ritual, religion, and stories. Although often neglected by historians and history textbooks, this long pe- riod of the human experience merits greater attention and is the focus of the initial sections of Chapter 1. The Revolution of Farming and Herding In 2012, almost all of the world’s 7 billion people lived from the food grown on farms and gardens and from domesticated animals raised for their meat, milk, or eggs. But before 11,000 years ago, no one survived in this fashion. Then, repeatedly and fairly rapidly, at least in world history terms, human communities in parts of the Middle East, Asia, Africa, and the Americas began the laborious process of domesticating animals and selecting seeds to be planted. This momentous accomplishment repre- sents another “first” in the human story. After countless millennia of relying on the gathering of wild foods and the hunting of wild animals, why and how did human societies begin to practice farming and animal husbandry? What changes to human life did this new technology bring with it? This food-producing revolution, also considered in Chapter 1, surely marks the single most significant and enduring transformation of the human condition.The en- tire period from the beginning of agriculture to the Industrial Revolution around 1750 might be considered a single phase of the human story — the age of agriculture — calculated now on a timescale of millennia or centuries rather than the more extended periods of earlier eras. Although the age of agriculture was far shorter than the im- mense Paleolithic era that preceded it, farming and raising animals allowed for a sub- stantial increase in human numbers. In the various beginnings of food production lay the foundations for some of the most enduring divisions within the larger human community. Much depended on the luck of the draw — on the climate and soils, on the various wild plants and animals that were available for domestication. Many agricultural peoples lived in small settled villages, independent of larger political structures, while drawing their food supply from their own gardens and farms. Some depended on root crops, such as potatoes in the Andes; others relied on tree crops, such as the banana; in the most favored areas, highly nutritious wild grains such as rice, wheat, or corn could be domesticated. In more arid regions where farming was difficult, some peoples, known as pastoralists, came to depend heavily on their herds of domesticated animals. Because they moved frequently and in regular patterns to search for pasturelands, they are often referred to as nomads. With regard to animal husbandry, the Americas were at a distinct dis- advantage, for there were few large animals that could be tamed — no goats, sheep, 6 part 1 / first things first: beginnings in history, to 500 b.c.e. pigs, horses, camels, or cattle. In the Afro-Eurasian world, conflicts between settled agricultural peoples and more mobile pastoral peoples represented an enduring pattern of interaction across the region. The Turning Point of Civilization The most prominent and powerful hu- man communities to emerge from the Agricultural Revolution were those of- ten designated as “civilizations,” more complex societies that were based in Mohenjo Daro (p. 70) bustling cities and governed by formal states.Virtually all of the world’s people now live in such societies, so that states and cities have come to seem almost natural. In world history terms, however, their appearance is a rather recent phenomenon. Not until several thousand years after the beginning of agriculture did the first cities and states emerge, around 3500 b.c.e. Well after 1000 c.e., substantial numbers of people still lived in communities without any state or urban structures. Nonetheless, people living in state- and city-based societies or civilizations have long constituted the most powerful and innovative human communities on the planet.They gave rise to empires of increasing size, to enduring cultural and religious traditions, to new technologies, to sharper class and gender inequalities, to new conceptions of masculinity and fem- inity, and to large-scale warfare. For all of these reasons, civilizations have featured prominently in accounts of world history, sometimes crowding out the stories of other kinds of human commu- nities. The earliest civilizations, which emerged in at least seven separate locations between 3500 and 500 b.c.e., have long fascinated professional historians and lovers of history everywhere. What was their relationship to the Agricultural Revolution? What new ways of living did they bring to the experience of humankind? These are the questions that inform Chapter 2. A Note on Dates Recently it has become standard in the Western world to refer to dates prior to the birth of Christ as b.c.e. (before the Common Era), replacing the earlier b.c. (before Christ) usage. This convention is an effort to become less Christian-centered and Eurocentric in our use of language, although the chronology remains linked to the birth of Jesus. Similarly, the time following the birth of Christ is referred to as c.e. (the Common Era) rather than a.d. (Anno Domini, Latin for “year of the Lord”). Dates in the more distant past are designated in this book as BP (before the present)  the big picture: turning points in early world history 7 or simply as so many “years ago.” Of course, these conventions are only some of the many ways that human societies have reckoned time. The Chinese frequently dated important events in terms of the reign of particular emperors, while Muslims created a new calendar beginning with Year 1, marking Muhammad’s forced relocation from Mecca to Medina in 622 c.e. As with so much else, the maps of time that we con- struct reflect the cultures in which we have been born and the historical experience of our societies.  Mapping Part One Human entry to Americas, 30,000–15,000 BP Chapter 1 Ishi Clovis culture Chapter 1 Chapter 1 Domestication of corn / Olmec civilization Chapters 1, 2 Domestication of potato / Norte Chico Chapters 1, 2 Human settlement by 12,500 BP Chapter 1  Gobleki Tepe / Çatalhüyük Chapter 1 Lascaux caves Central Asian civilization Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Indus Valley civilization Chapter 2 Agricultural breakthrough / Chinese civilization Chapters 1, 2 Ancient Egypt Chapter 2 Nubian civilizations Chapter 2 Last region settled by humans Agricultural Chapter 1 breakthrough / Austronesian migration Mesopotamian civilization Chapter 1 Chapters 1, 2 Origins of humans 250,000 BP Human entry to Australia Chapter 1 60,000-40,000 BP Chapter 1  c h a p t e r o n e First Peoples; First Farmers Most of History in a Single Chapter to 4000 b.c.e. Out of Africa to the Ends of the “We do not want cattle, just wild animals to hunt and water that we Earth: First Migrations can drink.”1 That was the view of Gudo Mahiya, a prominent mem- Into Eurasia ber of the Hadza people of northern Tanzania, when he was ques- Into Australia Into the Americas tioned in 1997 about his interest in a settled life of farming and cattle Into the Pacific raising. The Hadza then represented one of the very last peoples on The Ways We Were earth to continue a way of life that was universal among human- The First Human Societies kind until 10,000 to 12,000 years ago. At the beginning of the Economy and the Environment The Realm of the Spirit twenty-first century, several hundred Hadza still made a living by Settling Down: The Great Transition hunting game, collecting honey, digging up roots, and gathering Breakthroughs to Agriculture berries and fruit. They lived in quickly assembled grass huts located Common Patterns in small mobile camps averaging eighteen people and moved fre- Variations The Globalization of Agriculture quently around their remote region. Almost certainly their way of Triumph and Resistance life is doomed, as farmers, governments, missionaries, and now tour- The Culture of Agriculture ists descend on them. The likely disappearance of their culture par- Social Variation in the Age of allels the experience of many other such societies, which have been Agriculture Pastoral Societies on the defensive against more numerous and powerful neighbors Agricultural Village Societies for 10,000 years. Chiefdoms Reflections: The Uses of the Nonetheless, that way of life sustained humankind for more than Paleolithic Portrait: Ishi, The Last of His People 95 percent of the time that our species has inhabited the earth. Dur- Considering the Evidence ing countless centuries, human beings successfully adapted to a wide Documents and Visual Sources: variety of environments without benefit of deliberate farming or ani- History before Writing: How Do mal husbandry. Instead, our early ancestors wrested a livelihood by We Know? gathering wild foods such as berries, nuts, roots, and grain; by scav- enging dead animals; by hunting live animals; and by fishing. Known to scholars as “gathering and hunting” peoples, they were foragers Paleolithic Art: The rock art of gathering and hunting peoples has been found in Africa, Europe, Australia, and elsewhere. This image from the San people of southern Africa represents aspects of their outer life in the form of wild animals and hunters with bows as well as the inner life of their shamans during a trance, reflected in the elongated figures with both human and animal features. (© De Agostini Picture Library/age fotostock) 11 12 part 1 / first things first: beginnings in history, to 500 b.c.e. or food collectors rather than food producers. Because they used stone rather than metal tools, they also have been labeled “Paleolithic,” or “Old Stone Age,” peoples. And then, around 12,000 ago years an enormous transformation began to unfold as a few human societies — in Eurasia, Africa, and the Americas alike — started to prac- tice the deliberate cultivation of plants and the domestication of animals. This Agricul- tural or Neolithic (New Stone Age) Revolution marked a technological breakthrough of immense significance, with implications for every aspect of human life. This chap- ter, then, dealing with the long Paleolithic era and the initial transition to an agri- cultural way of life, represents most of human history — everything in fact before the advent of urban-based civilizations, which began around 5,500 years ago. And yet, history courses and history books often neglect this long phase of the human journey and instead choose to begin the story with the early civilizations of Egypt, Mesopotamia, China, and elsewhere. Some historians identify “real history” with writing and so dismiss the Paleolithic and Neolithic eras as largely unknowable because their peoples did not write. Others, impressed with the rapid pace of change in human affairs in more recent times, assume that nothing much of real significance happened during the long Paleolithic era — and no change meant no history. But does it make sense to ignore the first 200,000 years or more of human ex- perience? Although written records are absent, scholars have learned a great deal about Paleolithic and Neolithic peoples through their material remains: stones and bones, fossilized seeds, rock paintings and engravings, and much more. Archeologists, biolo- gists, botanists, demographers, linguists, and anthropologists have contributed much to our growing understanding of gathering and hunting peoples and early agricultural societies. (See Documents and Visual Sources: History before Writing, pp. 46–59.) Furthermore, the achievements of Paleolithic peoples — the initial settlement of the planet, the creation of the earliest human societies, the beginning of reflection on the great questions of life and death — deserve our attention. And the breakthrough to agriculture arguably represents the single most profound transformation of human life in all of history. The changes wrought by our early ancestors, though far slower than those of more recent times, were extraordinarily rapid in comparison to the transformation experienced by any other species. Those changes SEEKING THE MAIN POINT were almost entirely cultural or learned, rather than the product of biological evolution, and they provided the foundation on What arguments does this chapter make for which all subsequent human history was constructed. Our grasp paying serious attention to human history before the coming of “civilization”? of the human past is incomplete — massively so — if we choose to disregard the Paleolithic and Neolithic eras. Out of Africa to the Ends of the Earth: First Migrations The first 150,000 years or more of human experience was an exclusively African story. Around 200,000 to 250,000 years ago, in the grasslands of eastern and southern Africa, Homo sapiens first emerged, following in the footsteps of many other hominid chapter 1 / first peoples; first farmers: most of history in a single chapter, to 4000 b.c.e. 13 A Map of Time (All dates BP: Before the Present) 250,000–200,000 Earliest Homo sapiens in Africa 100,000–60,000 Beginnings of migration out of Africa 70,000 Human entry into eastern Asia 60,000–40,000 Human entry into Australia (first use of boats) 45,000 Human entry into Europe 30,000 Extinction of large mammals in Australia 30,000–15,000 Human entry into the Americas 30,000–17,000 Cave art in Europe 25,000 Extinction of Neanderthals 16,000–10,000 End of last Ice Age (global warming) 12,000–10,000 Earliest agricultural revolutions 11,000 Extinction of large mammals in North America After 6,000 First chiefdoms in Mesopotamia 6,000–5,000 Beginning of domestication of corn in southern Mexico 3,500–1,000 Austronesian migration to Pacific islands and Madagascar 1,000–700 Human entry into New Zealand (last major region to receive human settlers) or human-like species before it. Time and climate have erased much of the record of these early people, and Africa has witnessed much less archeological research than have other parts of the world. Nonetheless, scholars have turned up evidence of distinctly human behavior in Africa long before its appearance elsewhere. Africa, almost cer- tainly, was the place where the “human revolution” occurred, where “culture,” defined as learned or invented ways of living, became more important than biology in shaping behavior. What kinds of uniquely human activity show up in the early African record?2 In the first place, human beings began to inhabit new environments within Africa — forests and deserts — where no hominids had lived before. Accompanying these movements of people were technological innovations of various kinds: stone blades and points fastened to shafts replaced the earlier hand axes; tools made from bones ap- peared, and so did grindstones. Evidence of hunting and fishing, not just the scaveng- ing of dead animals, marks a new phase in human food collection. Settlements were planned around the seasonal movement of game and fish. Patterns of exchange over a distance of almost 200 miles indicate larger networks of human communication. The use of body ornaments, beads, and pigments such as ochre as well as possible planned 14 part 1 / first things first: beginnings in history, to 500 b.c.e. burials suggest the kind of social and symbolic behavior that has characterized hu- man activity ever since. The earliest evidence for this kind of human activity comes from the Blombos Cave in South Africa, where excavations in 2008 uncovered a work- shop for the processing of ochre dating to around 100,000 years ago, well before such behavior surfaced elsewhere in the world. Then, sometime between 100,000 and 60,000 years ago, human beings began their long trek out of Africa and into Eurasia, Australia, the Americas, and, much later, the islands of the Pacific (see Map 1.1). In occupying the planet, members of our species accomplished the remarkable feat of learning to live in virtually every envi- ronmental niche on earth, something that no other large animal had done; and they did it with only stone tools and a gathering and hunting technology to aid them. Furthermore, much of this long journey occurred during the difficult climatic condi- tions of the last Ice Age (at its peak around 20,000 years ago), when thick ice sheets covered much of the Northern Hemisphere. The Ice Age did give these outward- bound human beings one advantage, however: the amount of water frozen in north- ern glaciers lowered sea levels around the planet, creating land bridges among various regions that were separated after the glaciers melted. Britain was then joined to Europe; eastern Siberia was connected to Alaska; and parts of what is now Indo- nesia were linked to mainland Southeast Asia. Into Eurasia Change Human migration out of Africa led first to the Middle East and from there westward What was the sequence of into Europe about 45,000 years ago and eastward into Asia. Among the most carefully human migration across researched areas of early human settlement in Eurasia are those in southern France and the planet? northern Spain. Colder Ice Age climates around 20,000 years ago apparently pushed more northerly European peoples southward into warmer regions. There they altered their hunting habits, focusing on reindeer and horses, and developed new technolo- gies such as spear throwers and perhaps the bow and arrow as well as many different kinds of stone tools. Most remarkably, they also left a record of their world in hun- dreds of cave paintings, depicting bulls, horses, and other animals, brilliantly portrayed in colors of red, yellow, brown, and black. Images of human beings, impressions of human hands, and various abstract designs sometimes accompanied the cave paintings (see Visual Source 1.1, p. 52). Farther east, archeologists have uncovered still other remarkable Paleolithic ad- aptations to Ice Age conditions. Across the vast plains of Central Europe, Ukraine, and Russia, new technologies emerged, including bone needles, multilayered cloth- ing, weaving, nets, storage pits, baskets, and pottery. Partially underground dwellings constructed from the bones and tusks of mammoths compensated for the absence of caves and rock shelters. All of this suggests that some of these people had lived in more permanent settlements, at least temporarily abandoning their nomadic jour- neys. Associated with these Eastern European peoples were numerous female figu- rines, the earliest of which was uncovered in 2008 in Germany and dated to at chapter 1 / first peoples; first farmers: most of history in a single chapter, to 4000 b.c.e. 15 least 35,000 years ago. Carved from stone, antlers, mammoth tusks, or, occasionally, baked clay, these so-called Venus figu- rines depict the female form, often with exaggerated breasts, buttocks, hips, and stomachs. Similar figurines have been found all across Eurasia, raising any number of controversial questions. Does their widespread distribution suggest a network of human communication and cultural diffusion over a wide area? If so, did they move from west to east or vice versa? What do they mean in terms of women’s roles and status in Paleolithic societies? Into Australia Early human migration to Australia, per- Australian Rock Art haps 60,000 years ago, came from Indo- This Australian rock painting utilized the distinctive Aboriginal X-ray style, showing the nesia and involved another first in hu- internal bones and organs. The largest and main figure at the top is a Creation Ancestor man affairs — the use of boats. Over time, known as Namondjok. To the right is Namarrgon, or Lightning Man, who generates the people settled in most regions of this tremendous lightning storms that occur during the rainy season. The arc around his body represents the lightning, while the axes on his head, elbow, and feet are used huge continent, though quite sparsely. to split the dark clouds, creating thunder and lightning. The female figure beneath Scholars estimate the population of Aus- Namondjok is Barrginj, the wife of Lightning Man, while the people below her, elabo- tralia at about 300,000 in 1788, when rately dressed, are perhaps on their way to a ceremony. (J. Marshall/Visual Connection Archive) the first Europeans arrived. Over tens of thousands of years, they had developed perhaps 250 languages; collected a wide variety of bulbs, tubers, roots, seeds, and cereal grasses; and hunted large and small animals, as well as birds, fish, and other marine life. A relatively simple technology, appropri- ate to a gathering and hunting economy, sustained Australia’s Aboriginal people into modern times. When outsiders arrived in the late eighteenth century, Aboriginals still practiced that ancient way of life, despite the presence of agriculture in nearby New Guinea. Accompanying their technological simplicity and traditionalism was the develop- ment of an elaborate and complex outlook on the world, known as the Dreamtime. Expressed in endless stories, in extended ceremonies, and in the evocative rock art of the continent’s peoples, the Dreamtime recounted the beginning of things: how an- cestral beings crisscrossed the land, creating its rivers, hills, rocks, and waterholes; how various peoples came to inhabit the land; and how they related to animals and to one another. In this view of the world, everything in the natural order was a vibration, an echo, a footprint of these ancient happenings, which link the current inhabitants intimately to particular places and to timeless events in the past. 16 part 1 / first things first: beginnings in history, to 500 b.c.e. GREENLAND (30,000–15,000 years ago) NORTH (45,000 AMERICA AT L A N T I C O C E A N PAC I F I C O C E A N Equator SOUTH AMERICA Easter Island (1500 years ago) (by 12,500 years ago) 0 1,000 2,000 miles 0 1,000 2,000 kilometers Map 1.1 The Global Dispersion of Humankind With origins in Africa perhaps 250,000 years ago, members of our species (Homo sapiens) have migrated to every environ- mental niche on the planet over the past 100,000 years.  chapter 1 / first peoples; first farmers: most of history in a single chapter, to 4000 b.c.e. 17 EUROPE years ago) ASIA (70,000 years ago) (100,000 years ago) PAC I F I C O C E A N AFRICA Equator (3500 years ago) (1500 years ago) (60,000–40,000 years ago) AUSTRALIA INDIAN OCEAN (1000 years ago) NEW ZEALAND Ice sheet (20,000 years ago) Land bridges (20,000 years ago) Human expansion (dates for earliest human occupation) A N TA RC T I C A 18 part 1 / first things first: beginnings in history, to 500 b.c.e. The journeys of the Dreamtime’s ancestral beings reflect the networks of migra- tion, communication, and exchange that linked the continent’s many Paleolithic peoples. Far from isolated groups, they had long exchanged particular stones, pig- ments, materials for ropes and baskets, wood for spears, feathers and shells for orna- ments, and an addictive psychoactive drug known as pituri over distances of hundreds of miles.3 Songs, dances, stories, and rituals likewise circulated. Precisely how far back in time these networks extend is difficult to pinpoint, but it seems clear that Paleo- lithic Australia, like ancient Europe, was both many separate worlds and, at the same time, one loosely connected world. Into the Americas The earliest settlement of the Western Hemisphere occurred much later than that of Australia, for it took some time for human beings to penetrate the frigid lands of eastern Siberia, which was the jumping-off point for the move into the Americas. Experts continue to argue about precisely when the first migrations occurred (some- where between 30,000 and 15,000 years ago), about the route of migration (by land across the Bering Strait or by sea down the west coast of North America), about how many separate migrations took place, and about how long it took to penetrate to the tip of South America.4 There is, however, good evidence of human activity in southern Chile by 12,500 years ago. One of the first clearly defined and widespread cultural traditions in the Americas is associated with people who made a distinctive projectile point, known to archeolo- gists as a Clovis point. Scattered all over North America, Clovis culture flourished briefly around 13,000 years ago. Scattered bands of Clovis people ranged over huge areas, camping along rivers, springs, and waterholes, where large animals congregated. Although they certainly hunted smaller animals and gathered many wild plants, Clovis men show up in the archeological record most dramatically as hunters of very large mammals, such as mammoths and bison. Killing a single mammoth could provide food for many weeks or, in cold weather, for much of the winter. The wide distribu- tion of Clovis point technology suggests yet again a regional pattern of cultural dif- fusion and at least indirect communication over a large area. Then, rather abruptly, all trace of the Clovis culture disappeared from the ar- cheological record at about the same time that many species of large animals, in- cluding the mammoth and several species of horses and camels, also became extinct. Did the Clovis people hunt these animals to extinction and then vanish themselves as their source of food disappeared? Or did the drier climate that came with the end of the Ice Age cause this megafaunal extinction? Experts disagree, but what hap- pened next was the creation of a much greater diversity of cultures as people adapted to this new situation in various ways. Hunters on the Great Plains continued to pur- sue bison, which largely avoided the fate of the mammoths. Others learned to live in the desert, taking advantage of seasonal plants and smaller animals, while those who lived near the sea, lakes, or streams drew on local fish and birds. Many peoples chapter 1 / first peoples; first farmers: most of history in a single chapter, to 4000 b.c.e. 19 retained their gathering and hunting way of life into modern times, while others became farmers and, in a few favored regions, later developed cities and large-scale states.5 Into the Pacific The last phase of the great human migration to the ends of the earth took place in the Pacific Ocean and was distinctive in many ways. In the first place, it occurred quite recently, jumping off only about 3,500 years ago from the Bismarck and Solomon Islands near New Guinea as well as from the islands of the Philippines. It was every- where a waterborne migration, making use of oceangoing canoes and remarkable navigational skills, and it happened very quickly and over a huge area of the planet. Speaking Austronesian languages that trace back to southern China, these oceanic voyagers had settled every habitable piece of land in the Pacific basin within about 2,500 years. Other Austronesians had sailed west from Indonesia across the Indian Ocean to settle the island of Madagascar off the coast of eastern Africa. This extraor- dinary process of expansion made the Austronesian family of languages the most geo- graphically widespread in the world and their trading networks, reaching some 5,000 miles from western Indonesia to the mid-Pacific, the most extensive. With the occu- pation of Aotearoa (New Zealand) around 1000 to 1300 c.e., the initial human settle- ment of the planet was finally complete (see Map 1.2). CHINA INDIA > 3000 B.C.E. PHILIPPINES MICRONESIA HAWAII 2000 B.C.E. 1500 B.C.E. 500 B.C.E.–1 C.E. 300–800 C.E. 500 B.C.E. A FRICA BISMARCK I N D O N E S I A ARCH. NEW 1500 BCE GUINEA SOLOMON 500 C.E. IS. M E L ANE S I A P O LY N E S I A MADAGASCAR 1400–800 B.C.E. 600–1250 C.E. (LAPITA) AU S T R A L I A Easter Island (Rapa Nui) 1300 C.E. Extent of migrations of NEW ZEALAND Austronesian-speaking people Migration of Austronesian- 0 1,000 2,000 miles speaking people 0 1,000 2,000 kilometers Map 1.2 Migration of Austronesian-Speaking People People speaking Austronesian languages completed the human settlement of the earth quite recently as they settled the islands of the vast Pacific and penetrated the Indian Ocean to Madagascar, off the coast of southeast Africa. 20 part 1 / first things first: beginnings in history, to 500 b.c.e. Comparison In contrast with all of the other initial migrations, these Pacific voyages were un- How did Austronesian dertaken by agricultural people who carried both domesticated plants and animals migrations differ from in their canoes. Both men and women made these journeys, suggesting a deliberate other early patterns of human movement? intention to colonize new lands. Virtually everywhere they went, two developments followed. One was the creation of highly stratified societies or chiefdoms, of which ancient Hawaiian society is a prime example. In Hawaii, an elite class of chiefs with political and military power ruled over a mass of commoners. The other development involved the quick extinction of many species of animals, especially large flightless birds such as the moa of New Zealand, which largely vanished within a century of hu- man arrival. On Rapa Nui (Easter Island) between the fifteenth and seventeenth cen- turies c.e., deforestation accompanied famine, violent conflict, and a sharp population decline in this small island society, while the elimination of large trees ensured that no one could leave the island, for they could no longer build the canoes that had brought them there.6 The Ways We Were During their long journeys across the earth, Paleolithic people created a multitude of separate and distinct societies, each with its own history, culture, language, iden- tity, stories, and rituals, but the limitations of a gathering and hunting technology using stone tools imposed some commonalities on these ancient people. Based on the archeological record and on gathering and hunting societies that still exist in mod- ern times, scholars have sketched out some of the common features of these early societies. The First Human Societies Above all else, these Paleolithic societies were small, consisting of bands of twenty-five to fifty people, in which all relationships were intensely personal and normally under- stood in terms of kinship. The available technology permitted only a very low popu- lation density and ensured an extremely slow rate of population growth. Some scholars speculate that this growth was dramatically interrupted around 70,000 years ago by an enormous volcanic eruption on the island of Sumatra in present-day Indonesia, re- sulting in a cooler and drier global climate and causing human numbers to drop to some 10,000 or less. From that point of near extinction, world population grew slowly to 500,000 by 30,000 years ago and then to 6 million by 10,000 years ago.7 Paleolithic bands were seasonally mobile or nomadic, moving frequently and in regular patterns to exploit the resources of wild plants and animals on which they depended.The low productivity of a gathering and hunting economy normally did not allow the pro- duction of much surplus, and because people were on the move so often, transport- ing an accumulation of goods was out of the question. All of this resulted in highly egalitarian societies, lacking the many inequalities of wealth and power that came later with agricultural and urban life.With no formal chapter 1 / first peoples; first farmers: most of history in a single chapter, to 4000 b.c.e. 21 chiefs, kings, bureaucrats, soldiers, nobles, or priests, Paleolithic men and women were perhaps freer of tyranny and oppression than any subsequent kind of human society, even if they were more constrained by the forces of nature.Without special- ists, most people possessed the same set of skills, although male and female tasks often differed sharply. The male role as hunter, especially of big game, perhaps gave rise to one of the first criteria of masculine identity: success in killing large animals. Relationships between women and men usually were far more equal than in Change later societies. As the primary food gatherers, women provided the bulk of the family In what ways did a gather- income. One study of the San people, a surviving gathering and hunting society in ing and hunting economy shape other aspects of southern Africa, found that plants, normally gathered by women, provided 70 per- Paleolithic societies? cent of the diet, while meat, hunted by men, accounted for just 30 percent. This divi- sion of labor underpinned what anthropologist Richard Lee called “relative equality between the sexes with no-one having the upper hand.” Among the San, teenagers engaged quite freely in sex play, and the concept of female virginity was apparently unknown, as were rape, wife beating, and the sexual double standard. Although po- lygamy was permitted, most marriages were in fact monogamous because women strongly resisted sharing a husband with another wife. Frequent divorce among very young couples allowed women to leave unsatisfactory marriages easily. Lee found that longer-term marriages seemed to be generally fulfilling and stable. Both men and women expected a satisfying sexual relationship, and both occasionally took lovers, although discreetly.8 When the British navigator and explorer Captain James Cook first encountered the gathering and hunting peoples of Australia in 1770, he described them, perhaps a little enviously, in this way: They live in a Tranquillity which is not disturb’d by the Inequality of Condi- tions: The Earth and sea of their own accord furnishes them with all things necessary for life, they covet not Mag- nificient houses, Household-stuff.... In short they seem’d to set no value upon any thing we gave them....They think themselves provided with all the necessarys of Life.9 The Europeans who settled permanently among such people some twenty years later, however, found a society in which physical competition among men was expressed in frequent one-on-one combat and in for- malized but bloody battles. It also meant Native Australians A small number of Aboriginal Australians maintained their gathering and hunting recurrent, public, and quite brutal beatings way of life well into the twentieth century. Here an older woman shows two young of wives by their husbands.10 And some boys how to dig for honey ants, a popular food. (Bill Bachman/Alamy) 22 part 1 / first things first: beginnings in history, to 500 b.c.e. Aboriginal myths sought to explain how men achieved power over women. Among the San, frequent arguments about the distribution of meat or the laziness or stingi- ness of particular people generated conflict, as did rivalries among men over women. Richard Lee identified twenty-two murders that had occurred between 1920 and 1955 and several cases in which the community came together to conduct an execu- tion of particularly disruptive individuals. More generally, recent studies have found that in Paleolithic societies some 15 percent of deaths occurred through violence at the hands of other people, a rate far higher than in later civilizations, where violence was largely monopolized by the state.11 Although sometimes romanticized by out- siders, the relative equality of Paleolithic societies did not always ensure a utopia of social harmony. Like all other human cultures, Paleolithic societies had rules and structures. A gender-based division of labor usually cast men as hunters and women as gatherers. Values emphasizing reciprocal sharing of goods resulted in clearly defined rules about distributing the meat from an animal kill. Various rules about incest and adultery governed sexual behavior, while understandings about who could hunt or gather in particular territories regulated economic activity. Leaders arose as needed to organize a task such as a hunt, but without conferring permanent power on individuals. (See Document 1.1, pp. 47–50, for an insider’s description of a contemporary gathering and hunting society.) Economy and the Environment For a long time, modern people viewed their gathering and hunting ancestors as primitive and impoverished, barely eking out a living from the land. In more recent decades, anthropologists studying contemporary Paleolithic societies — those that sur- vived into the twentieth century — began to paint a different picture. They noted that gathering and hunting people frequently worked fewer hours to meet their material needs than did people in agricultural or industrial societies and so had more leisure time. One scholar referred to them as “the original affluent society,” not because they had so much but because they wanted or needed so little.12 Nonetheless, life expec- tancy was low, probably little more than thirty-five years on average. Life in the wild was surely dangerous, and dependency on the vagaries of nature rendered it insecure as well. But Paleolithic people also acted to alter the natural environment substantially. The use of deliberately set fires to encourage the growth of particular plants certainly changed the landscape and in Australia led to the proliferation of fire-resistant eucalyp- tus trees at the expense of other plant species. In many parts of the world — Australia, North America, Siberia, Madagascar, Pacific islands — the extinction of various large animals followed fairly quickly after the arrival of human beings, leading scholars to suggest that Paleolithic humankind played a major role, coupled perhaps with chang- ing climates, in the disappearance of these animals. Other hominid, or humanlike, chapter 1 / first peoples; first farmers: most of history in a single chapter, to 4000 b.c.e. 23 species, such as the Neanderthals in Europe or “Flores man,” discovered in 2003 in Indonesia, also perished after living side by side with Homo sapiens for millennia. Whether their disappearance occurred through massacre, interbreeding, or peaceful competition, they were among the casualties of the rise of humankind. Thus the biological environment inhabited by gathering and hunting peoples was not wholly natural but was shaped in part by their own hands. The Realm of the Spirit The religious or spiritual dimension of Paleolithic culture has been hard to pin down because bones and stones tell us little about what people thought, art is subject to many interpretations, and the experience of contemporary gathering and hunting peoples may not reflect the distant past. Clear evidence exists, however, for a rich interior life. The presence of rock art deep inside caves and far from living spaces suggests a “ceremonial space” separate from ordinary life.The extended rituals of con- The Willendorf Venus temporary Australian Aboriginals, which sometimes last for weeks, confirm this im- Less than four and a half pression, as do numerous and elaborate burial sites found throughout the world. No inches in height and dating to full-time religious specialists or priests led these ceremonies, but part-time shamans about 25,000 years ago, this female figure, which was (people believed to be especially skilled at dealing with the spirit world) emerged as found near the town of Willen- the need arose. Such people often entered an altered state of consciousness or a trance dorf in Austria, has become while performing the ceremonies, often with the aid of psychoactive drugs. the most famous of the many Venus figurines. Cer- Precisely how Paleolithic people understood the nonmaterial world is hard to re- tain features — the absence construct, and speculation abounds. Linguistic evidence from ancient Africa suggests of both face and feet, the a variety of understandings: some Paleolithic societies were apparently monotheistic; coils of hair around her head, the prominence of her breasts others saw several levels of supernatural beings, including a Creator Deity, various ter- and sexual organs — have ritorial spirits, and the spirits of dead ancestors; still others believed in an impersonal prompted much speculation force suffused throughout the natural order that could be accessed by shamans during among scholars about the a trance dance.13 The prevalence of Venus figurines and other symbols all across Eu- significance of these intrigu- ing carvings. (Naturhistorisches rope has convinced some, but not all, scholars that Paleolithic religious thought had Museum, Vienna, Austria/The a strongly feminine dimension, embodied in a Great Goddess and concerned with the Bridgeman Art Library) regeneration and renewal of life.14 Many gathering and hunting peoples likely de- veloped a cyclical view of time that drew on the changing phases of the moon and on the cycles of female fertility — birth, menstruation, pregnancy, new birth, and death. These understandings of the cosmos, which saw endlessly repeated patterns of re- generation and disintegration, differed from later Western views, which saw time mov- ing in a straight line toward some predetermined goal.15 Nor did Paleolithic people make sharp distinctions between the material and spiritual worlds, for they under- stood that animals, rocks, trees, mountains, and much more were animated by spirit or possessed souls of their own. Earlier scholars sometimes dubbed such views as “animistic” and regarded them as “primitive” or “simple” in comparison to later liter- ate religions. More recent accounts generally avoid the term, preferring to focus on the specifics of particular religious traditions rather than some overall evolutionary scheme. 24 part 1 / first things first: beginnings in history, to 500 b.c.e. Snapshot Paleolithic Era in Perspective16 Paleolithic Era Agricultural Era (from 250,000 to (from 10,000 to Modern Industrial 10,000 years ago) 200 years ago) Era (since 1800) Duration of each era, as 96% 4% 0.08% a percentage of 250,000 years Percent of people who 12% 68% 20% lived, out of 80 billion total Percent of years lived in 9% 62% 29% each era (reflects chang- ing life expectancies) Settling Down:The Great Transition Change Though glacially slow by contemporary standards, changes in Paleolithic cultures oc- Why did some Paleolithic curred over time as people moved into new environments, as populations grew, as peoples abandon earlier, climates altered, and as different human groups interacted with one another. For ex- more nomadic ways and begin to live a more ample, all over the Afro-Eurasian world after 25,000 years ago, a tendency toward the settled life? miniaturization of stone tools is evident, analogous perhaps to the miniaturization of electronic components in the twentieth century. Known as micro-blades, these smaller and more refined spear points, arrowheads, knives, and scrapers were carefully struck from larger cores and often mounted in antler, bone, or wooden handles.17 Another important change in the strategies of Paleolithic people involved the collec- tion of wild grains, which represented a major addition to the food supply beyond the use of roots, berries, and nuts.This innovation originated in northeastern Africa around 16,000 years ago. But the most striking and significant change in the lives of Paleolithic peoples occurred as the last Ice Age came to an end between 16,000 and 10,000 years ago. What followed was a general global warming, though one with periodic fluctuations and cold snaps. Unlike the contemporary global warming, generated by human ac- tivity and especially the burning of fossil fuels, this ancient warming phase was a wholly natural phenomenon, part of a long cycle of repeated heating and cooling character- istic of the earth’s climatic history. Plants and animals unable to survive in the Ice Age climate now flourished and increased their range, providing a much richer and more diverse environment for many human societies. Under these improved conditions, human populations grew, and some previously nomadic gathering and hunting com- munities, but not all of them, found it possible to settle down and live in more per- manent settlements or villages. These societies were becoming both larger and more complex, and it was less possible to simply move away if trouble struck. Settlement chapter 1 / first peoples; first farmers: most of history in a single chapter, to 4000 b.c.e. 25 also meant that households could store and accumulate goods to a greater degree than previously. Because some people were more energetic, more talented, or luckier than others, the thin edge of inequality gradually began to wear away the egalitarianism of Paleolithic communities. Changes along these lines emerged in many places. Paleolithic societies in Japan, known as Jomon, settled down in villages by the sea, where they greatly expanded the number of animals, both land and marine, that they consumed. They also created some of the world’s first pottery, along with dugout canoes, paddles, bows, bowls, and tool handles, all made from wood. A similar pattern of permanent settlement, a broader range of food sources, and specialized technologies is evident in parts of Scandinavia, Southeast Asia, North America, and the Middle East between 12,000 and 4,000 years ago. In Labrador, longhouses accommodating 100 people appear in the archeological record. Far more elaborate burial sites in many places testify to the growing com- plexity of human communities and the kinship systems that bound them together. Separate cemeteries for dogs suggest that humankind’s best friend was also our first domesticated animal friend. Among the most stunning and unexpected achievements of such sedentary Paleo- lithic people comes from the archeological complex of Göbekli Tepe (goh-BEHK- lee TEH-peh) in southeastern Turkey, under excavation since 1994. Dating to 11,600 Göbekli Tepe This monumental ceremonial site in southern Turkey, constructed by gathering and hunting people around 11,600 years ago, has surprised scholars, who have normally regarded such structures as the product of agri- cultural peoples. (Vincent J. Musi/National Geographic Stock) 26 part 1 / first things first: beginnings in history, to 500 b.c.e. years ago, it consists of massive limestone pillars, some weighing as much as sixteen tons, which were carved in a T shape and arranged in a set of some twenty circles or rings. Gracefully carved animals — gazelles, snakes, boars, foxes — decorate the pillars. Göbekli Tepe was probably a ceremonial site, for little evidence of human habitation has been found. Those who constructed or staffed the complex dined on animals hunted at a distance. Dubbed the “world’s oldest temple,” Göbekli Tepe was the prod- uct of people practicing a gathering and hunting way of life though living at least part of the year in settled villages. It represents a kind of monumental construction long associated only with agricultural societies and civilizations.18 Studies of more recent gathering and hunting societies, which were able to settle permanently in particular resource-rich areas, show marked differences from their more nomadic counterparts. Among the Chumash of southern California, for ex- ample, early Spanish settlers found peoples who had developed substantial and per- manent structures accommodating up to seventy persons, hereditary political elites, elements of a market economy including the use of money and private ownership of some property, and the beginnings of class distinctions. This process of settling down among gathering and hunting peoples — and the changes that followed from it — marked a major turn in human history, away from countless millennia of nomadic journeys by very small communities. It also provided the setting within which the next great transition would occur. SUMMING UP SO FAR Growing numbers of men and women, living in settled communities, placed How do you understand the a much greater demand on the environment than did small bands of wan- significance of the long dering people. Therefore, it is perhaps not surprising that among the Paleolithic era in the larger context of world history? innovations that emerged in these more complex gathering and hunting societies was yet another way for increasing the food supply — agriculture. Breakthroughs to Agriculture The chief feature of the long Paleolithic era — and the first human process to operate on a global scale — was the initial settlement of the earth. Then, beginning around 12,000 years ago, a second global pattern began to unfold — agriculture. The terms “Neolithic (New Stone Age) Revolution” or “Agricultural Revolution” refer to the deliberate cultivation of particular plants as well as the taming and breeding of particu- lar animals. Thus a whole new way of life gradually replaced the earlier practices of gathering and hunting in most parts of the world. Although it took place over cen- turies and millennia, the coming of agriculture represented a genuinely revolutionary transformation of human life all across the planet and provided the foundation for almost everything that followed: growing populations, settled villages, animal-borne diseases, horse-drawn chariot warfare, cities, states, empires, civilizations, writing, lit- erature, and much more. Among the most revolutionary aspects of the age of agriculture was a new rela- tionship between humankind and other living things, for now men and women were chapter 1 / first peoples; first farmers: most of history in a single chapter, to 4000 b.c.e. 27 not simply using what they found in nature but were actively changing nature as well. They were consciously “directing” the process of evolution. The actions of farmers in the Americas, for example, transformed corn from a plant with a cob of an inch or so to one measuring about six inches by 1500. Later efforts more than doubled that length. Farmers everywhere stamped the landscape with a human imprint in the form of fields with boundaries, terraced hillsides, irrigation ditches, and canals. Animals too were transformed as selective breeding produced sheep that grew more wool, cows that gave more milk, and chickens that laid more eggs than their wild counterparts. This was “domestication”— the taming, and the changing, of nature for the bene- fit of humankind — but it created a new kind of mutual dependence. Many domes- ticated plants and animals could no longer survive in the wild and relied on human action or protection to reproduce successfully. Similarly, human beings in the agricul- tural era lost the skills of their gathering and hunting ancestors, and in any event there were now too many people to live in that older fashion. As a consequence, farmers and herders became dependent on their domesticated plants and animals. From an outside point of view, it might well seem that corn and cows had tamed human be- ings, using people to ensure their own survival and growth as a species, as much as the other way around. A further revolutionary aspect of the agricultural age is summed up in the term “intensification.” It means getting more for less, in this case more food and resources — far more — from a much smaller area of land than was possible with a gathering and hunting technology. More food meant more people. Growing populations in turn required an even greater need for the intensive exploitation of the environment. And so was launched the continuing human effort to “subdue the earth” and to “have dominion over it,” as the biblical story in Genesis recorded God’s command to Adam and Eve. Common Patterns Perhaps the most extraordinary feature of the Neolithic or Agricultural Revolution was that it occurred, separately and independently, in many widely scattered parts of the world: the Fertile Crescent of Southwest Asia, several places in sub-Saharan Af- rica, China, New Guinea, Mesoamerica, the Andes, and eastern North America (see Map 1.3). Even more remarkably, all of this took place at roughly the same time (at least as measured by the 250,000-year span of human history on the planet) — between 12,000 and 4,000 years ago. These facts have generated many questions with which historians have long struggled. Why was the Agricultural Revolution so late in the history of humankind? What was unique about the period after 10,000 b.c.e. that may have triggered or facilitated this vast upheaval? In what different ways did the Agri- cultural Revolution take shape in its various locations? How did it spread from its several points of origin to the rest of the earth? And what impact did it have on the making of human societies? 28 part 1 / first things first: beginnings in history, to 500 b.c.e. NORTH AT L A N T I C E AMERICA OCEAN Eastern North America Gourd Sahara Squash Cattle Sunflower AFRICA Mesoamerica Avocado Beans Amazon River Valley Gourd Manioc Maize (Corn) Yam Pepper PAC I F I C E tor Eq Equa Equator Pumpkin Squash OCEAN West Africa Tomato African rice Cotton Oil palm Andean region Pearl millet Dog Beans SOUTH Sorghum Turkey AMERICA Chili pepper Yam? Gourd Manioc Map 1.3 The Global Potato Spread of Agriculture Quinoa Alpaca and Pastoralism Guinea pig From ten or more separate Llama Independent development of agriculture points of origin, agriculture Early pastoralism spread to adjacent areas, 0 1,000 2,000 miles Limit of early agriculture eventually encompassing 0 1,000 2,000 kilometers Spread of agriculture almost all of the world’s Beans Domesticated plant or animal peoples. Change It is no accident that the Agricultural Revolution coincided with the end of the What accounts for the last Ice Age, a process of global warming that began some 16,000 years ago. By about emergence of agriculture 11,000 years ago, the Ice Age was over, and climatic conditions similar to those of our after countless millennia of human life without it? own time generally prevailed. This was but the latest of some twenty-five periods of glaciation and warming that have occurred over the past several million years of the earth’s history and that are caused by minor periodic changes in the earth’s orbit around the sun. The end of the last Ice Age, however, coincided with the migration of Homo sapiens across the planet and created new conditions that made agriculture more possible. Combined with active hunting by human societies, climate change in some areas helped to push into extinction various species of large mammals on which Paleolithic people had depended, thus adding to the pressure to find new food sources. The warmer, wetter, and more stable conditions, particularly in the tropical and tem-  chapter 1 / first peoples; first farmers: most of history in a single chapter, to 4000 b.c.e. 29 Central Asia Bactrian camel East Asia Southwest Millet Steppes Rice Horse Soybean Silkworm Pig EURASIA PAC I F I C OCEAN Southeast Asia Banana Fertile Crescent Yam Barley Chicken Lentils A Water buffalo Peas Zebu cattle Wheat Flax New Guinea Cattle Sugar cane Dog Taro Donkey Yam Goat Pig Sheep Sudanic Africa Finger millet Peanut Sesame Sorghum Tef Cattle AUSTRALIA perate regions of the earth, also permitted the flourishing of more wild plants, espe- cially cereal grasses, which were the ancestors of many domesticated crops. What cli- mate change took away with one hand, it apparently gave back with the other. Over their long history, gathering and hunting peoples had already developed a deep knowledge of the natural world and, in some cases, the ability to manage it ac- tively. They had learned to make use of a large number of plants and to hunt and eat both small and large animals, creating what archeologists call a “broad-spectrum diet.” In the Middle East, people had developed sickles for cutting newly available wild grain, baskets to carry it, mortars and pestles to remove the husk, and storage pits to preserve it. Peoples of the Amazon and elsewhere had learned to cut back some plants to en- courage the growth of their favorites. Native Australians had built elaborate traps in which they could capture, store, and harvest large numbers of eels. 30 part 1 / first things first: beginnings in history, to 500 b.c.e. In hindsight, much of this looks like a kind of preparation for agriculture. Because women in particular had long been intimately associated with collecting wild plants, they were the likely innovators who led the way to deliberate farming, with men perhaps taking the lead in domesticating animals. Clearly the knowledge and tech- nology necessary for agriculture were part of a longer process involving more intense human exploitation of the earth. Nowhere was agriculture an overnight invention. Using such technologies, and benefiting from the global warming at the end of the last Ice Age, gathering and hunting peoples in various resource-rich areas were able to settle down and establish more permanent villages, abandoning their nomadic ways and more intensively exploiting the local area. In settling down, however, they soon lost some of the skills of their ancestors and found themselves now required to support growing populations. Evidence for increasing human numbers around the world during this period of global warming has persuaded some scholars that agri- culture was a response to the need for additional food, perhaps even a “food crisis.” Such conditions surely motivated people to experiment and to innovate in an effort to increase the food supply. Clearly, many of the breakthroughs to agriculture occurred only after gathering and hunting peoples had already grown substantially in numbers and had established a sedentary way of life. Göbekli Tepe in Turkey provides a possible example of the process. Klaus Schmidt, the chief archeologist at the site, argues that the need for food to supply those who built and maintained this massive religious complex may well have stimulated the development of agriculture in the area. Certainly, some of the earliest domesticated wheat in the region has been located just twenty miles away and at roughly the same date. If this connection holds, it suggests that the human impulse to worship collec- tively in a village-based setting played a significant role in generating the epic transfor- mation of the Agricultural Revolution. These were some of the common patterns that facilitated the Agricultural Revo- lution. New opportunities appeared with the improved climatic conditions at the end of the Ice Age. New knowledge and technology emerged as human communities explored and exploited that changed environment. The disappearance of many large mammals, growing populations, newly settled ways of life, and fluctuations in the process of global warming — all of these represented pressures or incentives to increase food production and thus to minimize the risks of life in a new era.19 From some combination of these opportunities and incentives emerged the profoundly trans- forming process of the Agricultural Revolution. Variations This new way of life initially operated everywhere with a simple technology — the digging stick or hoe. Plows were developed much later. But the several transitions to this hoe-based agriculture, commonly known as horticulture, varied considerably, depending on what plants and animals were available locally. For example, potatoes were found in the Andes region, but not in Africa or Asia; wheat and wild pigs existed chapter 1 / first peoples; first farmers: most of history in a single chapter, to 4000 b.c.e. 31 in the Fertile Crescent, but not in the Americas. Furthermore, of the world’s 200,000 plant species, only several hundred have been domesticated, and just five of these — wheat, corn, rice, barley, and sorghum — supply more than half of the calories that sustain human life. Only fourteen species of large mammals have been successfully domesticated, of which sheep, pigs, goats, cattle, and horses have been the most im- portant. Because they are stubborn, nervous, solitary, or finicky, many animals simply cannot be readily domesticated.20 In short, the kind of Agricultural Revolution that unfolded in particular places depended very much on what happened to be available locally, and that in turn depended on sheer luck. Among the most favored areas — and the first to experience a full Agricultural Comparison In what different ways did Revolution — was the Fertile Crescent, an area sometimes known as Southwest Asia, the Agricultural Revolution consisting of present-day Iraq, Syria, Israel/Palestine, Jordan, and southern Turkey take shape in various parts (see Map 1.4). In this region, an extraordinary variety of wild plants and animals of the world? Black Sea C AU CAS US M OUN TA I NS TURKEY R. s Caspian xe Ara ly s R. Sea Ha ANATOLIA Çatalhüyük Göbekli Tepe SYRIA ZA M Euphrate s G O