Cogpsy Midterm Unit 5-8 PDF

MARY KATHLEEN ADORIO BS PSYCHOLOGY UNIT 5: MENTAL REPRESENTATION - These are physical symbols or objects in the environment that represent information and can...

MARY KATHLEEN ADORIO BS PSYCHOLOGY UNIT 5: MENTAL REPRESENTATION - These are physical symbols or objects in the environment that represent information and can be MENTAL REPRESENTATION interacted with directly. - Refers to the way in which information, knowledge, and experiences are stored and organized in the mind. ASPECT INTERNAL EXTERNAL REPRESENTATION REPRESENTATION KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION LOCATION Inside the mind Outside the mind (mental or (in the physical - Refers to the way knowledge is structured, organized, cognitive environment) and stored in the mind. It involves how information representations) about the world such as facts, concepts, rules and FORM Abstract (thoughts, Concrete (symbols, procedures. images, concepts, diagrams, text, schemas) objects) MANIPULATION Mentally Physically manipulated manipulated or TWO KINDS OF KNOWLEDGE STRUCTURES through cognition viewed DECLARATIVE KNOWLEDGE SYMBOLIC REPRESENTATION “knowing that” - Refers to the use of symbols-abstract, discrete units - Refers to the facts that can be stated, such as date of of information-to represent objects, concepts, or your birth, the name of your best friend, or the way a processes. These symbols stand for something other rabbit looks. than themselves, and they can be manipulated PROCEDURAL KNOWLEDGE mentally to perform various cognitive tasks, such as reasoning, problem-solving, and communication. “knowing how” - Refers to the knowledge of procedures that can be implemented. Examples are the steps involved in TWO KEY CHARACTERISTICS OF SYMBOLIC tying your shoelaces, adding a column of numbers, or REPRESENTATION driving a car. ABSTRACT - The symbol doesn't physically resemble what it COMMUNICATING KNOWLEDGE represents. Can be presented in different ways in your mind. It can be stored as mental pictures or words. Cognitive Psychology chiefly interested in our mental representations of what we know. INTERNAL REPRESENTATIONS ARBITRARY - These are mental representations that exist in the - Refers to something that is based on personal choice, mind. They are internal constructs that allow random decision or an agreement. individuals to think about and manipulate information without relying on the external world. EXTERNAL REPRESENTATIONS 1 MARY KATHLEEN ADORIO BS PSYCHOLOGY According to Paivio, mental images are analog codes. Analog codes resemble the objects they are representing. A symbolic code is a form of knowledge representation that has been chosen arbitrarily to stand for something that does not perceptually resemble what is being represented. MENTAL MANIPULATIONS OF IMAGES MENTAL ROTATIONS - Involves rotationally transforming an object’s visual Picture in your mind: Mental Imagery mental image IMAGERY IMAGE SCALING - is the mental representation of things that are not - A key cognitive skill that allows people to manipulate currently seen or sensed by the sense organs. In our mental images by zooming in and out, facilitating a minds we often have images for objects, events, and flexible understanding of both detailed components settings. and larger contexts within visual-spatial reasoning. Mental imagery even can represent things that you have IMAGE SCANNING never experienced. - Refers to the cognitive process of mentally inspecting Mental images even may represent things that do not and moving through a mental image, much like how exist at all outside the mind of the person creating the you would visually scan an actual picture or scene. image. Imagery may involve mental representations in any of the sensory modalities, such as hearing, smell, or taste. REPRESENTATIONAL NEGLECT Nonetheless, most research on imagery in cognitive - A condition in which individuals neglect one side of psychology has focused on visual imagery, such as mental images or cognitive maps-their internal, representations of objects or settings that are not mental representation of space-rather than the presently visible to the eyes. physical environment. We use visual images to solve problems and to answer questions involving objects. SPATIAL COGNITION - Refers to the mental processes and abilities involved in acquiring, organizing, and utilizing spatial Dual Code Theory: Analog and Symbolic Codes Information. It encompasses a broader range of According to dual-code theory, we use both pictorial and functions, including perception, memory, reasoning, verbal codes for representing information in our minds. and navigation in both real and imagined spaces. These two codes organize information into knowledge COGNITIVE MAP that can be acted on, stored somehow, and later retrieved for subsequent use. - A cognitive map is a mental representation of spatial information that helps individuals visualize and 2 MARY KATHLEEN ADORIO BS PSYCHOLOGY understand the layout of their environment. It Strategy Formulation includes knowledge about locations, distances, and Analysis Synthesis relationships between different objects or places. Breaking down the whole Putting together various Humans seem to use three types of knowledge when of a complex problem into elements to arrange them forming and using cognitive maps; manageable elements. into something useful. LANDMARK ROUTE-ROAD SURVEY KNOWLEGE KNOWLEDGE KNOWLEDGE How can we solve the problem? Information Involves specific Involves Divergent Thinking Convergent Thinking about a pathways for estimated Generates a diverse Narrowing down the particular moving from distances assortment of possible multiple possibilities to features at a one location to between alternative solutions to a converge on a single location and another landmarks, problem. answer. which may be much as they based on both might appear on imaginal and survey maps Organization of Information propositional representations. How do the various pieces of information in the problem fit together? UNIT 6: PROBLEM SOLVING PROBLEM SOLVING Allocation of Resources - An effort to overcome obstacles obstructing the How much time, effort and money, etc., should I put into path to a solution. this problem. PROBLEM SOLVING CYCLE Monitoring Problem Identification Am I on track as I proceed to solve the problem? Problem Definition Strategy Formation Organization of Information Evaluation Allocation of Resources Did I solve the problem correctly? Monitoring Evaluation THE PROBLEM-SOLVING CYCLE Problem Identification Example: Automobile Manufacturer Adapting to Electric Vehicles (EV) Do we actually have a problem? Analysis Internal Problem Definition Strength: Long history of innovation and a well- What exactly is the problem? established global distribution network. 3 MARY KATHLEEN ADORIO BS PSYCHOLOGY Weaknesses: Reliance on traditional combustion engine Evaluation Objective and Subjective and technology and limited R&D in electric vehicle (EV). based on based on correctness judgement External Example Solving a math Developing a Opportunity: Increasing global demand for equation strategy to reduce poverty environmentally friendly vehicles and government Thinking Style Convergent Divergent (open incentives for EV adoption. (focused on one to multiple Threat: Competition for new players like Tesla and other solution) solutions) automakers that are already ahead in EV technology. Synthesis Max Wertheimer (Gestalt Psychologist) Strategic Option 1: Invest heavily in R&D to accelerate in- Productive Thinking house EV development and leverage the existing - Which involves insights that go beyond the innovation culture to catch up with competitors. bounds of existing association. Strategic Option 2: Partner with or acquire a startup Reproductive Thinking specializing in EV technology to reduce the lead time to market while using the global distribution network for - Which is based on existing associations involving rapid scaling. what is already known. Strategic Fit: Partnering with an EV startup aligns with the Gestalt Psychologists emphasized the importance of the company’s strong distribution network, allowing quick whole as more than a collection of parts. In regard to market penetration while compensating for its weakness problem solving, Gestalt Psychologists held that insight in EV technology. Investment in R&D supports long-term problem requires problem solvers to perceive the innovation but may be a slower route. problem as a whole. According to Wertheimer, insightful (productive) thinking differs fundamentally from reproductive thinking. In solving the insight problems TYPES OF PROBLEMS given in this chapter, you had to break away from your existing associations and see each problem in an entirely Well-structured/Well-defined new light. Productive thinking also can be applied to a - Have clear paths to solution. well-structured problems. Ill-structured/Ill-defined - Lack clear paths to solution. OBSTACLES AND AIDS TO PROBLEM SOLVING ASPECT WELL ILL- Mental Set/Entrenchment STRUCTURED STRUCTURED - A frame of mind involving existing model for Goal Clarity Clearly defined Vague or representing a problem, a problem context, or a ambiguous procedure for problem solving. Solution Single correct Multiple solution possible Functional Fixedness solutions Solution Path Clear and Unclear or - The inability to realize that something known to established unknown have a particular use may also be used for Methods Known and well- Not well-known performing other functions. defined or structured 4 MARY KATHLEEN ADORIO BS PSYCHOLOGY Transfer models were devised by economists, statisticians, and philosophers, not by psychologists. Hence, they reflect - Is any carryover of knowledge or skills from one the strengths of an economic perspective. One such problem situation to another. strength is the ease of developing and using mathematical Negative and Positive Transfer models for human behavior. Negative transfer The Model of Economic Man and Woman Subjective Expected Utility Theory - Occurs when solving an earlier problem makes it Heuristics and Biases harder to solver a later one. Fallacies Positive Transfer - Occurs when the solution pf an earlier problem The Model of Economic Man and Woman makes it easier to solve a new problem. Among the early models of decision making crafted in the 20th century was that of an economic man and woman. Incubation This model assumed three things; - Putting the problem aside for a while without 1. Decision makers are fully informed regarding all consciously thinking about it offers one way in possible options for their decisions and of all which to minimize negative transfer. possible outcomes of their options. 2. They are infinitely sensitive to the subtle distinctions among decision options. Expertise 3. They are fully rational in regard to their choice of options. - Plays a significant role in enhancing problem- solving abilities, influencing how individuals The assumption of infinite sensitivity means that people approach and resolve both familiar and novel can evaluate the difference between two outcomes, no problems. Experts, compared to novices, have a matter how subtle the distinctions among options may deeper understanding of their field, more be. The assumption of rationality means that people developed cognitive strategies, and ability to make their choices to maximize something of value, efficiently use their knowledge. whatever that something may be. UNIT 7: DECISION MAKING AND REASONING Subjective Expected Utility Theory Judgement and Decision Making are used to select from An alternative model makes greater allowance for the among choices to evaluate opportunities. Afterward we psychological makeup of each individual decision maker. consider various forms of reasoning. The goal of According to subjective utility theory, the goal of human reasoning is to draw conclusions, either deductively from action is to seek pleasure and avoid pain. According to principles or inductively from evidence. this theory, in making decisions, people will seek to maximize pleasure (referred to as positive utility) and to minimize pain (referred to as negative utility). Classical Decision Theory The earliest models of how people make decisions are referred to as classical decision theory. Most of these 5 MARY KATHLEEN ADORIO BS PSYCHOLOGY Subjective Utility Satisficing - Which is a calculation based on the individual’s As early as the 1950s some researchers were beginning to judged weightings of utility (value), rather than on challenge the notion of unlimited rationality. Not only did objective criteria. these researchers recognize that we humans do not always make ideal decisions and that we usually include Subjective Probability subjective considerations in our decisions. But they also - Which is a calculation based on the individual’s suggested that we humans are not entirely and estimates of likelihood, rather than on objective boundlessly rational in making decisions. In particular, we statistical computations. human are not necessarily irrational. Rather, we show bounded rationality we are rational, but within limits. In satisficing, we consider options one by one, and then Heuristics and Biases we select an option as soon as we find that is satisfactory The world is full of information and stimuli of different or just good enough to meet our minimum level of kinds. In order to function properly and not get acceptability. When there are limited working-memory overwhelmed, we need to filter out the information resources available, the use of satisficing for making available to us. The same holds true for decision making. decisions may be increased. Satisficing is also used in In order to be able to make a decision within a reasonable industrial contexts in which too much information impair time frame, we need to reduce the available information the quality of decisions, as in the selection of suppliers in to a manageable amount. electronic marketplace. Heuristics help achieve this goal and at the same time decrease our efforts by allowing us to examine fewer cues Elimination by Aspects or deal with fewer pieces of information. We sometimes use a different strategy when faced with However, sometimes our thinking also gets biased by our far more alternatives that we feel that we reasonably can tendencies to make decisions more simply. consider in the time we have available. In such situations, we do not try to manipulate mentally all the weighted attributes of all available options. Rather, we use a Heuristics process of elimination by aspects, in which we eliminate In the following sections, we discuss several heuristics alternatives by focusing on aspects of each alternative, people use in their daily decision making. Heuristics are one at a time. If you are trying to decide which college to mental shortcuts that lighten the cognitive load of making attend, the process of elimination by aspects might look decisions. like these: Satisficing Focus on one aspect (attribute) of the various Elimination by Aspects options (the cost of going to college); Representativeness Heuristic Form a minimum criterion for that aspect (tuition must be under $20,000 per year); Availability Heuristic Eliminate all options that do not meet that Anchoring criterion (ex: Standford University is more than Framing $30,000 and would be eliminated); For the remaining options, select a second aspect for which we set a minimum criterion by which to eliminate additional options (the college must be on the West Coast); and 6 MARY KATHLEEN ADORIO BS PSYCHOLOGY Continue using sequential process of elimination than 5 seconds) calculate in your head the answer to the of options by considering a series of aspects until following problem: a single options remains. 8x7x6x5x4x3x2x1=? Now quickly calculate your answer to the following Representativeness Heuristics problem: In representativeness, we judge the probability of an 1x2x3x4x5x6x7x8=? uncertain event according to: 1. How obviously it is similar to or representative of Framing the population from which it is derived; and 2. The degree to which it reflects the salient features Framing effects have public relevance. Messages from of the process by which it is generated (such as politicians, political parties, and other stakeholders can be randomness). framed in different ways and therefore take on a different connotation. EX: Suppose people are asked to judge the probability of flips of coin yielding the sequence H T H H T H (H, heads; Another consideration in decision theory is the influence T, tails). Most people will judge it as higher that they will if of framing effects, in which the way that the options are asked to judge the sequence H H H H T H. If you expect a presented influences the selection of an option. For sequence to be random, you tend to view as more likely a instance, we tend to choose options that demonstrate risk sequence that “looks random”. Indeed, people often aversion when we are faced with an option involving comment that the numbers in a table of random numbers potential gains. That, is we tend to choose options “don’t look random”. offering a small but certain gain rather than a larger but uncertain gain, unless the uncertain gain is either tremendously greater or only modestly less than certain. Availability Heuristic Framing Effects example: Most of us at least occasionally use the availability Suppose that you were told that 600 people are at risk of heuristic, in which we make judgements on the basis of dying of a particular disease. Vaccine A could save the how we easily can call to mind what we perceive as lives of 200 of the people at risk. With Vaccine B, there is relevant instances of a phenomenon. a 0.33 likelihood that all 600 people would be saved, but Question: there is also a 0.66 likelihood that all 600 people will die. Which option would you choose? Explain how you made Are there more words in the English language that begin your decision. with the letter R or that have R as their third letter? Suppose that for the 600 people at risk of dying of Most respondents say that there are more words particular disease, if Vaccine C is used, 400 people will beginning with the letter R. die. However, if Vaccine D is used, there is a 0.33 likelihood that no one will die and a 0.66 likelihood that all 600 people will die. Which option would you choose? Anchoring Compare the number of people whose lives will Heuristic related to availability is the anchoring-and- be lost or saved by using Vaccines A or C. adjustment heuristic, by which people adjust their Compare the number of people whose lives will evaluations of things by means of certain reference points be lost by using Vaccines B or D. called end-anchors. Before you read on, quickly (in less 7 MARY KATHLEEN ADORIO BS PSYCHOLOGY Biases not clear. One simple explanation is that we prefer not to think about being wrong. In the next section, we discuss several biases that frequently occur when people make decisions: - Illusory Correlation Hindsight Bias - Overconfidence For example, suppose people are asked to predict - Hindsight Bias outcomes of psychological experiments in advance of the experiments. People rarely are able to predict the outcomes at better-than-chance levels. Illusory Correlation Finally, a hindsight bias when we look at a situation We are predisposed to see particular events or attributes retrospectively, we believe we easily can see all the signs and categories as going together, even when they do not. and events leading up to a particular outcome. This phenomenon is called illusory correlation. In the case of events, we may see spurious cause-effect However, when people are told of the outcomes of relationships. In the case of attributes, we may use psychological experiments, they frequently comment that personal prejudices to form and use stereotypes (perhaps these outcomes were obvious and could easily have been as a result of using the representativeness heuristic). predicted in advance. For example, suppose we expect people of a given political party to show particular intellectual or moral Fallacies characteristics. The instances in which people show those characteristics are more likely to be available in memory Heuristics and fallacies are often studied together and recalled more easily than are instances that because they go hand in hand. The application of a contradict our biased expectation. In other words, we heuristic to make a decision may lead to fallacies in perceive a correlation between the political party and the thinking. Therefore, when we discuss some fallacies, we particular characteristics. refer back to some of the heuristics in association with which they often occur. Gambler’s Fallacy and the Hot Hand Overconfidence Conjunction Fallacy - Another common error is overconfidence and Sunk-Cost Fallacy individual’s overvaluation of her or his own skills, knowledge or judgement. For example, when people were 100% confident in their Gambler’s Fallacy and the Hot Hand answers, they were right only 80% of the time. In general, HOT HAND people tend to overestimate the accuracy of their judgements. Why are people overconfident? One reason A tendency opposite to that of the gambler’s fallacy. It is that people may not realize how little they know. refers to a belief that a certain course of events will Another is that they may not realize that their information continue. comes from unreliable sources. Gambler’s fallacy is a mistaken belief that the probability People sometimes make poor decisions as a result of of a given random event, such as winning or losing at a overconfidence. These decisions are based on inadequate game of chance, is influenced by previous random events. information and ineffective decision-making strategies. For example, a gambler who loses five successive bets Why we tend to be overconfident in our judgements is may believe that a win is therefore more likely the sixth 8 MARY KATHLEEN ADORIO BS PSYCHOLOGY time. He feels that he is “due” to win. In truth, of course, justify the investment you have already made in the each bet (or coin toss) is an independent event that has vacation. By doing so, you have committed the sunk-cost an equal probability of winning or losing. The gambler is fallacy. Instead of viewing the money simply as lost on an no more likely to win on the 6th bet than on the 1st or on unfortunate decision, you have decided to throw more the 1001st. Gambler’s fallacy is an example of the money away. But you do so without any hope that the representative heuristic gone awry: One believes that the vacation will get any better. pattern representative of past events is now likely to change. UNIT 8: LANGUAGE What is Language? Conjunction Fallacy There are almost 7,000 languages spoken in a word today. Do you remember the experiment described in the New Guinea is the country with most languages in the section on the availability heuristic where people were world it has more 850m indigenous languages, which asked if there are more words in the English language that means that on average, each language has just about begin with the letter R or that have R as their third letter? 7,000 speakers. Surprisingly, there are still languages The availability heuristic lead to the conjunction fallacy. today that have not even been “discovered” and named In the conjunction fallacy, an individual gives a higher by scientists. A linguist who traveled to southwestern estimate for a subset of events (English Language that China’s Yunnan province in 2006 discovered 18 languages, begins with R is easier to retrieve in memory) than the for spoken b y members of the Phula ethnic group, that never the larger set if events containing the given subset (e.g., before had been defined and named. words that have R as their third letter). It is to be expected that there are many more languages The representative heuristic may also induce individuals that linguist do not yet know about. Part of the reason for to engage in the conjunction fallacy during the the Phula languages’ not having been discovered earlier is probabilistic reasoning. Tvesky and Kahneman asked that speakers of the language live in mountainous areas college students: that are hard to access. What exactly constitutes a language, and are some things that all languages have in Please give your estimate of the following values: common? What percentage of the men surveyed [in a health survey] have had one or more heart attacks? Language and Thought What percentage of the men surveyed both are over 55 years old and have had one or more heart attacks? One of the most interesting areas in the study of language is the relationship between language and thinking of the human mind. Many people believe that languages shapes Sunk-Cost Fallacy thoughts. It is for this reason that the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association places big value An error in judgement that is quite common in people’s on political correctness in researchers’ writings. And for thinking is the sunk-cost fallacy. This fallacy represents the this reason politicians and media use labels like “freedom decision to continue to invest in something simply fighters” versus “terrorists” or “surgical strikes” versus because one has invested in it before and one hopes to “bombing raids”. recover one’s investment. Many different questions have been asked about the For example, supposed you go on a two-week vacation. relationship between language and thought. We consider You are having a miserable time. Should you go home a only some of them here. Studies comparing and week early? You decide not to, thereby attempting to 9 MARY KATHLEEN ADORIO BS PSYCHOLOGY contrasting users of differing languages and dialects from possibilities for creating new utterances are the basis of this section. virtually limitless. Dynamic Language Comprehension - Language constantly evolves. Many processes are involved when we try to understand what somebody says. First of all, we need to perceive and The Basic Components of Words-Speech recognize the words that are being said. Then we need to assign meaning to those words. In addition, we have to The lexicon, is the entire set of morphemes in a given make sense of sentences we hear. language or in a given person’s linguistic repertoire. The average adult speaker of English has a lexicon of about Properties of Language 80,000 morphemes. By combining morphemes, most Communicative adult English speakers have a vocabulary of hundreds of Regularly Structured thousands of words. Generative, Productive For example, by attaching just a few morphemes to the Arbitrarily Symbolic root content morpheme: “study”, we have student, Structure at multiple levels studious, studied, studying, and studies. Vocabulary is Dynamic built up slowly. It develops through many diverse Communicative exposures to words and clues as their meanings. - Language permits us to communicate with one or more people who share our language. Arbitrarily Symbolic - Language creates am arbitrarily relationship between a symbol and what it represents: an idea, a thing, a process, a relationship, or a description. Regularly Structured - Language has structure; only particularly patterned arrangements of symbols have meaning, and different arrangements yield When Reading is a Problem-Dyslexia different meanings. To better understand what processes are involved in Structure at multiple levels reading, let us first look at people who have trouble - The structure of language can be analyzed at reading. People who have dyslexia difficulty in more than one level (e.g., in sounds, meaning in deciphering, reading, and comprehending text can suffer units, words, and phrases). greatly in our society that puts a high premium on fluent reading. Problems in phonological processing, and thus in Generative, Productive word identification, pose “the major stumbling block in - Within the limits of a linguistic structure, learning to read”. Several different processes may be language users can produce novel utterances. The impaired in dyslexia: 10 MARY KATHLEEN ADORIO BS PSYCHOLOGY Phonological Awareness - A second kind of dyslexia is acquired dyslexia, Phonological Reading which is typically caused by traumatic brain Phonological Coding damage. A perfectly good reader who Lexical Access experiences a brain injury may acquire dyslexia. Phonological Awareness - Which refers to awareness of sound structure of Neuropsychological Studies-Dyslexia spoken language. A typical way of assessing Neuropsychological studies suggests that readers with phonological awareness is through a phoneme- dyslexia exhibit hypoactivation (that is, too little deletion task. activation) in their left temporo-parietal cortex as Phonological Reading compared with regular readers. - Which entails reading words in isolation. Teachers Other brain regions show atypical activation in dyslexic sometimes call this skill “word decoding” or readers, for example the left prefrontal region (linked with “word attack”. For measurement of the skill, memory), the left middle and superior temporal gyri children might be asked to read words in (linked with receptive language), and the left occipito- isolation. temporal regions (associated with the visual analysis of letters). However, educational interventions can help Phonological Coding reduce the impairments in reading caused by dyslexia. - Which refers to coding in working memory. This process is involved in remembering strings of phonemes that are sometimes confusing. It might be measured by comparing working memory for confusable versus non-confusable phonemes. Lexical Access - Which refers to one’s ability to retrieve phonemes from long-term memory. The question here is whether one can quickly retrieve a word from long-term memory when it is seen. Kinds of Dyslexia Developmental Dyslexia - The most well-known kind is developmental dyslexia, which is difficulty in reading that starts in childhood and typically continues throughout adulthood. Most commonly, children with developmental dyslexia have difficulty in learning the rules that relate letters to sound. Acquired Dyslexia 11