Chapter 1 – What is Psychology PDF

Chapter 1 – What is Psychology 1. Psychology as a science 1.1 Psychology and Psychological Theory Psychology − Scientific study of behavior and mental processes − Goals: To describe, explain, predict, and control behavior and mental processes Th...

Chapter 1 – What is Psychology 1. Psychology as a science 1.1 Psychology and Psychological Theory Psychology − Scientific study of behavior and mental processes − Goals: To describe, explain, predict, and control behavior and mental processes Theory − Allows one to: + Propose reasons for relationships among events + Derive explanations + Make predictions − Psychological theories combine statements about behavior, mental processes and biological processes. 1.2 What psychologists do − Conduct research: pure (without concerns for immediate applications)/applied research (find solutions to problem) − Practice psychology − Teach 1.3 Fields of Psychology: Clinical (treating disorders), counseling (use interviews and tests to identify patient’s problems), health, forensic, organizational (behavior of people in orgs), human factors (make technical systems more user-friendly), consumer (behaviors of shoppers/consumers), sport (help athletes concentrate on the game, not the audience) 2. Historical Foundations of Psychology 2.1 Ancient contributors Aristotle (384-322 BCE) − Science could rationally treat only info gathered by the senses - explore the nature of cause and effect - people differ from other living things in their capacity for rational thoughts Democritus (around 400 BCE) − Think of behavior in terms of a body and a mind - Behavior is influenced by external stimulation Socrates − Rely on rational thought + introspection to gain self knowledge - Introspection: Deliberate looking into one’s own cognitive processes to examine one’s thoughts and emotions 2.2 Structuralism Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920): founder of structuralism − He used introspection to discover the basic elements of experience - Structuralism: break conscious experience down to objective sensations (sight/taste) and subjective feelings (emotional responses, and mental images (memories/dreams)) - Objective element + Subjective element = Structuralism - “What are the pieces that make up thinking and experience” 2.3 Functionalism William James: founder of functionalism − Opposite with Structuralism: experience cannot be broken down into objective and subjective elements - Functionalism: focus on behavior and the mind of consciousness, look at how our experience helps us function more adaptively in our environments (habits help us cope with common situations) - “How do behavior and mental processes help people adapt to the requirements of their lives?” - Functionalists adapt Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution: adaptive behavior patterns are learned and maintained 2.4 Behaviorism John Broadus Watson: founder of behaviorism − Focus on learning observable behavior (by means of specialized instruments: heart rate, blood pressure, brain waves) - Behaviorists define psychology as the scientific study of behavior, not of behavior and mental processes. - B. F. Skinner: through reinforcements, living organisms can learn to behave in a certain way (laboratory animals) - Reinforcement: a stimulus that follows a response and increases the frequency of the response 2.5 Gestalt Psychology Three founders: Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, Wolfgang Kohler − Gestalt psychologists focus on perception and how perception influences thinking and problem- solving - Contrast to Behaviorists and Structuralists - We tend to perceive separate pieces of info as integrated wholes 2.6 Psychoanalysis Developed by Sigmund Freud − comprise of both the theory of personality and the method of psychotherapy + As a theory of personality: much of our lives are governed by unconscious ideas and impulses that originate in childhood conflicts + As a method of psychotherapy: help patients gain insight into their conflicts and to find socially acceptable ways of expressing wishes and gratifying needs. 3. Contemporary Perspectives in Psychology 2.1 The Biological Perspective Charles Darwin - Seeks relationships between the brain, hormones, heredity, evolution, and Behavioral processes - Thoughts, fantasies, and dreams are made possible by the nervous system, especially the brain − Most adaptive organism manages to mature and reproduce 2.2 The Cognitive Perspective - Looks at mental processes to understand human nature - Studies those things that are referred to as the mind - Rooted in: + Socrates’s advice -> Know Thyself + Structuralism + Functionalism + Gestalt psychology 2.3 The Humanistic-Existential Perspective This perspective emphasizes the role of subjective (personal) experience Humanism – Stresses on human capacity for self-fulfillment, roles of consciousness, self-awareness, and decision making Existentialism – Stresses on free choice and holds people responsible for the choices made Based on the works of Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow 2.4 The Psychodynamic Perspective Neoanalysts: Contemporary psychologists who follow theories derived from Freud Famous psychologists include Karen Horney and Erik Erikson Focus more on conscious choice and self-direction than unconscious processes 2.5 Perspectives on Learning - Contemporary psychologists: Learning is the essential factor in describing, explaining, predicting, and controlling behavior. - Social-cognitive theorists suggest that people can modify and create their environments. 2.6 The Sociocultural Perspective Focuses on the influence of ethnicity, gender, culture, and socioeconomic status on behavior and mental processes Ethnicity + Members of an ethnic group share + Cultural heritage, race, language, + History + The “Doll Experiment”: African American children tend to choose white dolls Gender: Culturally defined concepts of + Masculinity and femininity + Involves cultural expectations and social roles + Mary Whilton Calkins: the first female president of the American Psychological Association 4. How psychologists study behavior and mental processes 4.1 The scientific method Steps in the scientific method: + Formulate a research question + Start the hypothesis + Test the hypothesis + Draw conclusions based on findings + Apply critical thinking = Causal >< Correlation = Consider the selection factors in correlation Samples and Population: + Sample: a segment of the population, can be drawn in a way that accurately represents that population + Population: a complete group of interest + Representative samples: allow generalization of findings Problems in generalizing from psychological research + Random sample: each member of a population has an equal chance of selection + Stratified sample: subgroups are represented proportionally + Volunteer bias: bias represented by studying people who volunteer to participate 5. Methods of research 5.1 Methods of Observation Case studies: - Gather information about individuals or small groups − Clinical studies − Often used to examine rare situations or uncommon occurrences (dissociative identity personalities) - Subject to inaccuracies (as people may distort their pasts/antagonize the interviewers/the interviewers have expectations) Surveys − Used to collect information that cannot be observed directly or studied experimentally - Can study many people at the same time - The Kinsey survey: surprising info about people’s sexual behavior during the middle of the 20th century - Also have sources of inaccuracies (socially desirable directions) 5.2 Naturalistic Observation − Observe subjects in their natural environment − Unobtrusive measure to avoid interfering with the behaviors - Jane Goodall observed the behaviors of chimpanzees 5.3 Correlation Follows observation Correlation allows the psychologist to investigate the relationship between learned behavior or measured traits Correlation coefficient: Expresses strength and direction of the relationship between variables through math (from r=+1.00 to r=- 1.00) à positively correlated (r=+0.30 to r=+0.60) Suggests, but does not prove, cause and effect 5.4 The Experimental Method Demonstrates cause and effect through scientific method with the help of: − Independent and dependent variables + Independent variables: manipulated by the experiments so the effects may be determined + Dependent variables: the measured results, or outcomes − Experimental and control groups + Experimental group: obtain the treatment + Control group: do not obtain the treatment Blind study − Placebos are administered on the participants Double-blind study − Both participants and observers are unaware of who is receiving treatment and who is taking a placebo 6. Ethics in Psychological Research 6.1 With Humans Ethics review committee and ethical standards: − Review proposed studies according to ethical guidelines before granting approval − Weigh the potential benefits of research against the potential harm Individuals need to provide informed consent before participation − Records of research participants and clients are kept confidential − Informed consent: a participant’s agreement to participate in research after receiving information about the purpose of the study and the nature of the treatments. According to the APA’s ethical standards, psychologists may use deception when: − They believe the benefits of the research outweigh its harm − They believe the individuals might have been willing to participate if they had understood the benefits of the research − Participants are debriefed later 6.2 With Animals Animals are used when research cannot be carried out with humans Animals may be harmed only when: − There is no alternative − Benefits of the research justify the harm 7. Critical thinking Critical Thinking: A way of evaluating the claims and comments of other people that involve skepticism and examination of evidence Be skeptical: Keep an open mind. Accept nothing is true until you have examined the evidence Insist on evidence: Is everything you see online true? How do you decide? Examine definitions of terms: Some things are true in one context but not another. Examine the assumptions or premises of arguments Be cautious in concluding evidence: Be sure you really have cause and effect before drawing conclusions Be skeptical of anecdotes: What makes this true or correct? Consider alternative interpretations of research evidence: Look for a true correlation, and look for reason why something might not be true Do not oversimplify: Human behavior is complex and reasons for a behavior vary by person Do not overgeneralize: While animals are often used in experiments, they are not humans Apply critical thinking to all areas of life