Chapter 1 PDF

Chapter 1. Key concepts. ▪ Sociology. ▪ Education. ▪ Sociology of education. ▪ Functions of sociology of education. Functionalism. ▪ Dirkheim, Parsons, and functionalism. ▪ Assumptions of functionalism theory. ▪ Critique of functionalism. Conflict theory...

Chapter 1. Key concepts. ▪ Sociology. ▪ Education. ▪ Sociology of education. ▪ Functions of sociology of education. Functionalism. ▪ Dirkheim, Parsons, and functionalism. ▪ Assumptions of functionalism theory. ▪ Critique of functionalism. Conflict theory ▪ Marx, Weber, Mills ▪ Conflict theory and families. ▪ Conflict theory apply to society. ▪ Assumptions about conflict theory. ▪ Propositions of the proponents of conflict theory. ▪ Critique of conflict theory. Symbolic interactionism. ▪ Principles of the theory of symbolic interactionism. ▪ Assumptions about symbolic interactionism. ▪ Theory of symbolic interactionism and families. ▪ Theory of symbolic interactionism applied to society. ▪ Divisions within theory of symbolic interactionism. Glossary. Assimilation Close conflict. Assumption. Defiance. Bourgeoisie Functionalism. Page 1 of 19  Ideology. Social class. Marxism. Conflict Social conflict. theory. Social consensus. Meritocracy. Social control. Patriarchy. Social Order. Pragmatism. Social patterns. Proletariat. Social Structure. School of thought. Solidarity. Social Capital. Symbolic interactionism. Important people. ▪ Auguste Comte ▪ John Meyer (1798 – 1857) Frensh philosopher = Father of sociology ▪ Karl Marx (1818 - 1884) ▪ Herbert Spencer (1820 – 1903) ▪ Emile Durkheim (1858 – 1917) ▪ George Herbert Mead (1863 – 1931) ▪ Max Weber (1864 – 1920) ▪ Talcot Parsons (1902 – 1970) ▪ Alfred Schutz (1889 – 1973) ▪ Plato ▪ Jean-Jacques Rousseau ▪ John Dewey ▪ Robert Westbrook ▪ Pierre Bourdieu ▪ James Coleman Page 2 of 19 Key concepts Field of study of sociology of education. Effect of educational institutions and experience of individuals within these institutions. Sociology. ✓ August Commente. 1798 to 1857. French philosopher also seen as the father of sociology. ✓ Distinct science of human society. ✓ Latin word “socius” = companion.+ Greek word “logos” = study of Study of companionship or social relations. ✓ Definition. = The study of human behaviors as they are affected by social interactions amongst groups, organizations, societies, and the world. ✓ Includes study of social factors that includes:  ideas  Feelings.  Ways of behaving. Education. ✓ Latin word “educere” = To bring out what is within. ✓ Concerned with eliciting human values that are latent (hidden) in everyone and must be drawn out. ✓ Act of imparting or acquiring general knowledge, + developing powers of reasoning and judgment. + Preparing individuals intellectually for mature life. ✓ Dynamic and ever-changing process. ✓ Form of socialization. = Means through which knowledge and learning skills are required for purpose of serving society and maintaining order. ✓ Greek philosopher Plato = Importance of justice in society. = Involved using education to produce a balanced, smooth functioning, just society and individual has place in serving society's needs. Page 3 of 19  ✓ French philosopher Jean Jacques Rousseau. = Emphasized worthiness of individual and need for freedom and education. So he could achieve individuality and personhood. ✓ American writer and philosopher John Dewey. = Emphasized importance of education as a prime fashioner of individual growth and a progressive democratic society. Education is a fundamental method of social progress and reform. Schools play an important role in shaping children's character, thereby transforming society. Schools provide controlled environment that shapes cause of children's development. School system. = A function of prevailing type of organization of social life. ✓ 20th century historian Robert Westbrook. = Most schools not designed to transform society, but reproduce them. If schools were to become agencies of social reform, rather than social reproduction, would have to be thoroughly reconstructed. ✓ Key argument. = Education is a form of learning that is transferred from one person to another, leading to individual growth, and intended to serve society's needs. Sociology of education. ✓ Definition. = Study of educational structures, processes and practices from a sociological perspective. ✓ Defines the scientific analysis of the social processes and social patterns involved in educational system. ✓ Used to increase understanding of relationship between educational institutions and society at micro and macro levels. o Micro level. = Have variation in school practice like different teaching methods, ⟩ differences in student performance. o Macro level = identify how various school forces (politics + Economics + Culture) create variation in schools. Page 4 of 19  ✓ Durkheim.= Education to be essentially social in character and its functions. Theory of education relates more clearly to sociology than other sciences. ✓ Focuses on social institutions of education, including peer groups, classes and schools, while acknowledging the interrelationship between education and other societal institutions. ✓ Despite criticism of limiting education autonomy and prescribing content and practice, provides a unique perspective on schools and education, emphasizing their social nature and questioning the autonomy of education. Functions of sociology of education. ✓ Education primarily believed to be the acquisition of knowledge and individual personality development, but it also serves sociological functions. o Assimilation and transmission of culture and traditions. o Development of new social patterns. o Activation of constructive and creative forces. Assimilation and transmission of culture and tradition. ✓ Culture and traditions must be assimilated selectively and consciously based on their value and acceptability in a democratic society. This includes incorporating religion as paths to God, emphasizing societal moral responsibility. ✓ Education should assist with acquisition of: o Clear moral principles and values. o Ability to examine on the thoughts and feelings. o Awareness of proficiencies and goals. o Self esteem and strong belief in ability to achieve goals. o Ability to think creatively. o Appreciation of culture. (art + music + humanities) o Development of sense of well-being. (mental + physical health) o Respect for others. o Respectful physical environment. o Capacity to live a fulfilling life. Page 5 of 19 Development of new social patterns. ✓ While traditional values should be preserved, new social patterns and values should be developed to achieve societal goals. o Citizens grounded in own culture but remain open to other cultures. o Cultivation of global mindset. o Knowledge sufficiently advanced to allow economic development that manages both physical+ human environments responsibly. o Formation of citizens aware of their social responsibilities. o Development of citizens who can evaluate available information and make future predictions. o Enhancing problem solving skills in individuals who can identify and evaluate alternative solutions. Activation of constructive and creative forces. ✓ Education plays an important role in creating a skilled and innovative workforce capable of adapting to new technologies and driving global economy’s intelligence revolution. ✓ Education should achieve: o Provides learners with sufficient vocational education to enable them to earn a living. o Enhanced mental and physical skills, including motor, thinking, communication and social abilities. o Adaptable and capable of navigating changes in social environment. o Contribute to the development of society. o Understand and appreciate democracy and live by its principles. o Use leisure time efficiently. o Adapt + prepare + initiate change in society o Empathetic and peaceful by teaching mutual understanding and peace. o Promotes socially accepted moral practices and ethical standards. Page 6 of 19  o Understand human relations and motivations. ✓ Sociologists use micro and macro approaches to research, school practices and student performance. o Micro approaches focus on symbolic interactionism. o Macro approaches uses functionalism and conflict theory to understand social forces on education. FUNCTIONALISM ✓ Functionalist perspective, known as structural functionalism - A significant theoretical approach in sociology of education, primarily derived from Durkheim and Parsons. Dominated educational thinking until the late 1960s, early 1970s. ✓ Functionalism, rooted in natural and physical sciences, emphasizes the role of societal parts, such as institutions, in maintaining stability and equilibrium. It emphasizes the interdependence of these interconnected parts, which are structured to fulfill different needs, influencing the form and shape of society. ✓ The functionalist approach, popularized by American sociologists in the 1940s and 1950s, aimed to understand human behavior and social order, dividing human functions into manifest and latent types. o Manifest functions are intentional actions, such as attending a religious community to worship and pass on basic knowledge and skills to future generations. o Latent functions, unintentional and not obvious, can help individuals distinguish personal values from institutional values in schools, where they not only educate but also provide mass entertainment. ✓ Durkheim theorizes that education's latent role is to socialize individuals into society's mainstream, fostering a more cohesive social structure from diverse backgrounds. ✓ Functionalists argue education transmits core values and social control, influencing American children's behavior and expectations, reinforcing political and economic systems that initially fueled education. Page 7 of 19  ✓ Functionalism focuses on two levels: micro-level, addressing universal education's societal needs, and macro-level, emphasizing social solidarity, value consensus, and cohesion. It emphasizes social stability and shared public values, with social consensus impacting solidarity in two forms. Disorganization and deviant behavior lead to change. o Mechanical solidarity is a social cohesion where people share similar values, beliefs, and work, often found in simple societies like Amish and rural communities in South Africa. o Organic solidarity is a social cohesion where individuals are interdependent but share diverse values and beliefs, exemplified in industrialized, complex societies like New York and Johannesburg. ✓ Functionalism is crucial in fostering solidarity and value consensus among society members, ensuring shared goals, rules, and norms for appropriate behavior, following primary socialization in families. Durkheim, Parsons & Functionalism Durkheim ✓ Emile Durkheim, a pioneer in sociological education, proposed the rules of sociological method in his publications, focusing on how social order can be maintained despite various influences, demonstrating the importance of societal stability. ✓ Durkheim's career focused on ensuring moral regulation and social integration for modern society. Born in 1858, he grew up after the French Revolution, which emphasized individual freedom. The First World War heightened nationalism, making it difficult for individualism to question government policies. ✓ Durkheim's theory, influenced by France's capitalist industrialisation, defended individual rights during the French Revolution, but warned against unchecked individualism, where individual rights might outweigh societal interests. ✓ Educational institutions play a crucial role in balancing individual rights with societal interests. They influence Page 8 of 19  those not yet ready for social life, ensuring physical, intellectual, and moral development for children to meet political and societal demands. ✓ Haralambos and Holborn emphasize Durkheim's expectations of education, stating that it should be specialized, prepare individuals for their chosen environment, build societal consensus, provide necessary norms and values, and provide a cognitive framework for understanding the world, all while creating a stable, structured environment for conformity. ✓ Durkheim (1956) argues that education is a social institution, defining the end product rather than the individual being educated. Its primary functions are to develop societal needs, not individual abilities and potential. The ideals of education should be decided by society. Parsons ✓ Talcott Parsons, a Harvard professor of sociology, contributed significantly to the field of sociological theory through his publications such as The Structure of Social Action and The Theory of Action. ✓ Parsons, a prominent structural functionalist scholar, argued that the terms 'functionalist' and 'structural functionalist' were inappropriate for his theory, recognizing it as a universal method. ✓ Parsons' significant contribution lies in understanding how society functions as a system, creating social balance and equilibrium. He developed a general analytic model called AGIL, which outlines the four basic functions all social systems must perform for survival, aiming to understand why institutions persist and maintain equilibrium. o The issue of adaptation refers to the challenge of acquiring sufficient resources within an economic system. o Goal attainment refers to the process of setting and achieving objectives within a political system. o Integration refers to the issue of maintaining co- ordination among various system units such as schools, churches, media, police, and judicial systems. Page 9 of 19  o Latency refers to the challenge of preserving and transmitting the unique culture and values of a system, including kinship, family, and marriage. ✓ The structuralist-functionalist approach is a method used to analyze social systems. ✓ The AGIL model, first applied by Parsons, differentiates organisations from other social systems by their focus on achieving a specific goal at various levels. ✓ 3 major levels: o The technical system is the bottom level of an organization, where the product is manufactured, involving workers, teachers, and scientists in classrooms and laboratories. o The managerial system involves individuals who act as mediators between the organization and the task environment, ensuring the smooth functioning of internal affairs. o The institutional system is the top level of an organization, responsible for establishing a connection with the broader society. ✓ Parsons' social system is comprehensive, explicit, and applicable, but has deficiencies, making it more useful as a conceptual framework than a usable theory with testable propositions. ✓ Parsons' ideas dominate the functionalist approach's primary explanations, linking it to the existence of a social system and holding fundamental premises on functionalism. o Every system must meet certain requirements for survival. o Specialized structures are designed to meet the specific needs of society. o Social structures, functions, and systems are intrinsically related and affect each other. o The process of specialization of structures is a result of the evolutionary variation. o Structural difference is a process that leads to the increase in complexity of systems. o Structural difference enhances the adaptiveness of systems. o Differentiation generates issues that impose pressure on the selection of integrating processes. Page 10 of 19  o The integration of processes helps maintain a state of balance within a system. ✓ Parsons developed numerous concepts and schemes to depict the ideal social system, emphasizing key features for social integration analysis. These theories help evaluate situations' conformity or deviation from the ideal social system Assumptions of functionalism theory ✓ Functionalism theorists make certain assumptions about the field of functionalism. o Functionalism emphasizes the importance of collective conscience and shared values for societal well-being. Value consensus promotes cooperation and avoids conflict, while ensuring shared goals, roles, and norms. Durkheim believed social life couldn't be achieved without these shared values and norms. o Functionalists assert that the four fundamental needs (food, shelter, money, and clothing) are crucial for maintaining social order. o Education and school unite individuals, fostering social solidarity and transmitting society's norms and values. Parsons believed education leads to universal values, secondary socialization, and training for future roles. Schools act as socialization agents, instilling achievement and equality of opportunity in learners. o Family is a crucial agent of socialisation, providing norms, values, and emotional security to children and adults, and serving four vital functions for society. o The government provides education to learners, whose parents pay taxes. Schools mold children into law- abiding, tax-paying citizens, who support the state, resulting in order, stability, and productivity. o Religion enhances societal integration by teaching values, norms, and group consensus, providing guidelines and moral glue. Without these, a divide can arise, allowing social division. o The media effectively communicates information influencing public opinion, reflecting audience interests and showcasing diverse stories, Page 11 of 19  demonstrating their understanding of society's diverse culture. o Power politics involves the use of authority to achieve collective goals, aligning with Parsons' value consensus, where everyone benefits from a variable sum of power. Critique of functionalism ✓ Functionalism is criticized for encouraging societal complacency and maintaining the status quo. It supports class and social stratification, but does not encourage active social change. The education system instills universally accepted values, but functionalism does not encourage active participation in changing the social environment, as various societal factions will compensate for any problems. ✓ The second criticism of functionalism concerns the education system's ability to instill universal values in all children, questioning if this is a form of indoctrination. ✓ Critics argue that modern industrial capitalist societies' social stratification limits equal opportunity for children from non-affluent backgrounds, posing challenges to achieving equality of opportunity. ✓ Functionalism, a sociology of education theory, is most effective when applied to a largely unproblematic modern capitalist society, allowing for empirical questioning of its contributions. Conflict Theory ✓ Conflict theory, also known as Marxism, was developed in the 19th and 20th centuries by sociologists like Max Weber, Charles Wright Mills, and Ludwig Gumplovicz. Karl Marx is considered the founder of the conflict school in sociology of education. The theory suggests that conflict is inevitable among social classes due to the difference in resources. This is evident in South Africa, where power disparities have led to strikes. Marx, Weber, Mills ✓ Marx argued that the state uses property and material conditions to gain political power, resulting in conflicts Page 12 of 19  between owners, renters, capitalists, and workers. The wealth of owners allows them to easily spread their views. The conflict arises from the exploitation of workers, who do not receive equal share in their labor, allowing the owning class to dominate politically. ✓ Weber, a key sociological father, refined Marx's conflict theory, focusing on social conflict and industrial revolution changes. He argued that social conflict, rooted in power, prestige, and property, is prevalent in various aspects of society. Weber also emphasized the emotional aspect of conflict and concluded that class divisions are normal, inevitable, and acceptable. ✓ C. Wright Mills, the founder of modern conflict theory, suggests that social structures are created by individuals with differing interests and resources, with wealthy or elite individuals controlling these structures, leading to conflicts and disregarding non-elite interests. Conflict theory & Families ✓ Conflict theory advances inequalities in society, rooted in wealth, power, and status structures that favor one group over others, perpetuating social, economic, political, and coercive power. ✓ Family structures in Africa perpetuate patriarchy and social inequality, favoring men over women. This patriarchal system benefits men more and allows them to maintain power. The case study illustrates how this power is exerted between sexes. ✓ The case study highlights the inequitable structure perpetuated by traditional families, where women often do more housework and childcare than men. Despite women in the paid workforce, males tend to have more power. Conflict theorists argue that family parameters influence societal position, perpetuating social inequality through inheritance, education, and social capital. Wealthy families maintain privileged social positions, while poor families are denied similar status. ✓ Conflict theory challenges the belief that families are harmonious, asserting that conflict is normal and that understanding family dynamics is key. It suggests identifying conflict sources and power sources can improve Page 13 of 19  communication, empathy, and motivation for change within families. Conflict theory applied to society ✓ Conflict theory can analyze class conflicts, hostility between rich and poor, and non-economic conflicts like spiritual resource divisions. It can also explain micro-level tensions between interest groups, such as the division between Protestants and Catholics. ✓ The conflict perspective explains the inequalities in societies due to opposing social groups with different aims, aspirations, statuses, and rewards. These groups are mainly controlled by the powerful social group, who maintain control over resources and reproduce existing inequalities. This group directs educational institutions, ensuring that lower-, middle-, and upper-class learners become adults. This cyclical process allows the powerful group to entrench their values and goals in educational institutions, while also reinforcing the myth that education is for everyone. ✓ Higgins' conflict theory responds to functionalism, arguing that social systems are dynamic and tensions exist between interest groups. They view conflict as an inevitable part of society, recognizing that life rarely runs smoothly and that inequalities are normal. Hewitt sees conflict as a way to ensure social change, group solidarity, and stability, as groups compete for resources, power, and authority. Assumptions about Conflict Theory ✓ Modern conflict theorists have developed a list of assumptions that serve as the foundation for conflict theory. o Interactions results in conflict o Conflict and change are both normal and inevitable aspects of society. o Competition over scarce resources, such as money, leisure, or sexual partners, is a characteristic of all social groups and human relationships, as conflict would not exist if everyone had the resources. o Structural inequality refers to power and reward inequalities inherent in all social structures, where scarce resources lead to competition among groups. Page 14 of 19  o Inequality exists in various degrees, with individuals having varying resources and hierarchies. o Revolutionary changes resulting from conflict between competing interests are sudden and abrupt , rather than transformative. Propositions of the proponents of conflict theory ✓ Conflict theory supporters describe plans that is based on the relationships between conceptual components of a theory as described above. o Marx argues that the proletariat (masses) and the bourgeoisie (highly skilled workers) are engaged in a fierce competition for scarce resources. o Gumplowicz argues that societies are formed through unequal systems that foster the relationship between slave and master. o Weber argues that the Protestant ethic, which emphasizes hard work as the key to achieving wealth, increases the capitalistic struggle for resources. o Mills argues that the unequal distribution of resources leads to conflicts between the non-elite and the power elite. o Feminine conflict theory suggests that men's power struggles hinder women who have been oppressed from gaining equal access to resources and power. o Post-colonialism refers to the practice of powerful countries expanding their global influence by colonizing other nations to increase their wealth. o World systems theory reveals competition among countries based on status, wealth, and technology, with core countries being well-developed and peripheral countries underdeveloped. Core countries extract resources and use technology for consumer goods. Critique of Conflict theory ✓ Conflict theory is criticized for its deterministic nature, assuming everything benefits the ruling class, portraying the working class as subordinate and unaware of their subordination, and lacking explanation for individual effects. Page 15 of 19 Symbolic interactionism ✓ Symbolic interactionism is a theoretical perspective in sociology of education, focusing on the self and society. It was first proposed by Max Weber and George H. Mead, but was coined by Herbert Blumer. Other pragmatists, like Cooley and Thomas, further developed this perspective in the early 20th century. ✓ Blumer, a key figure in shaping this perspective, identified three fundamental premises. o Humans act based on the meanings they associate with things. o The meanings of things are primarily derived from social interaction. o The meanings of these concepts are influenced and shaped by the interpretive process of the individuals who interact with each other. Principles of the theory of Symbolic Interactionism ✓ Blumer outlined several basic principles of symbolic interactionism o Human’s have capacity for thought o This is shaped by social interaction o Social interaction enables individuals to acquire the meanings and symbols that enable them to utilize their unique human cognitive capacity. o Meanings and symbols enable individuals to engage in distinctive human actions and interactions. o People can alter the meanings and symbols of a situation based on their interpretation of the situation. o People make modifications due to self-interaction, which allows them to evaluate potential actions, compare their advantages and disadvantages, and ultimately choose the best course of action. o Groups and societies are formed by interconnected patterns of action and interaction. Assumptions about symbolic interactionism ✓ Interactionism theory is based on a set of assumptions developed by its theorists o The meanings of things are shaped by the context of the interactions between individuals. Page 16 of 19  o Symbols are social objects that provide meaning to individuals and are created, shared, and maintained through social interaction. o Humans respond to experiences through subjective meanings, which are developed, modified, and negotiated in interaction situations, based on experience and individual interactions. o The self is a mirror for self-reflection, influenced by significant others and generalized systems. It allows individuals to form a self-concept, relying on their opinions and experiences. o Situational definitions refer to the belief that situations are real if they are perceived as real by others. o Definitions are believed to influence actions and self- fulfilling prophecies, as seen in the old saying "A child follows his name," potentially dictating their life's outcome. o Culture significantly influences the meanings of words or symbols in a society, which are passed down through interpretation and negotiation among group members. Theory of Symbolic interactionism and families ✓ Symbolic interactionism, a theory associated with family studies since the 1920s and 1930s, originated from Ernest Burgess and pioneered by Willard Wailer. It emphasizes the dynamic interactions of families as a whole, using qualitative methods and a structured developmental perspective. This perspective emphasizes rolemaking, role definition, negotiation, and identity within the family. ✓ Socialisation is a crucial aspect of symbolic interactionist research, involving the transmission of culture and the formation of personalities and self-concepts. It is highly reciprocal between parents and children, affecting each other's self-concepts. Cross-cultural research shows that family relations within specific ethnic domains and communication contexts, shape family interactions and identity negotiations. Studies on Chinese immigrants in the United States also show a clear relationship between parent-child interactions and ethnic identities. Page 17 of 19 Theory of Symbolic interactionism applied to society ✓ Symbolic interactionism is a social behavior where people interact through symbols, linking social beings to each other. From childhood, individuals learn to identify with others and understand their roles, enabling them to learn appropriate behavior in different settings. Society interacts in familiar and unfamiliar settings, such as family gatherings, work, church, school, and rituals. Unfamiliar situations, such as natural disasters or mourning, can also prompt interaction. Divisions within the theory of symbolic interactionism ✓ The Chicago school (Blumer) and Iowa school (Manford Kuhn) are two opposing schools in symbolic interactionism, with the former focusing on qualitative methods for reality construction, and the latter on quantitative methods for studying products of social interaction. Burgess's work emphasizes structural interactionism, focusing on social structure, and uses conventional survey methods for marital adjustment studies. Summary ✓ Functionalism, originating from Durkheim and Parsons, suggests that society consists of interdependent sub- systems or institutions, which maintain stability and equilibrium, potentially leading to social change if not maintained. ✓ Functionalism categorizes human functions into manifest and latent ones, emphasizing social consensus, cohesion, and shared public values. It covers concepts like collective conscience, value consensus, social order, and media. ✓ Conflict theory suggests that conflicts of interest are inevitable in all human societies and groups, such as disagreements over scarce resources. It suggests that conflict is necessary for growth and social change, and that unequal resource distribution creates hierarchies within societies. Page 18 of 19 ✓ Symbolic interactionism emphasizes how individuals behave in social settings, influenced by cultural and social processes. Meaning is created through interaction and modified through interpretation, shaping social structure and societal relationships. This interaction helps individuals develop self-concepts, which motivate behaviour. ✓ The sociology of education was analyzed from three perspectives, focusing on family and society. Various key issues was identified, and discussed to enhance our understanding of sociology of education. Page 19 of 19