Cognitive Psychology Lecture Notes PDF

Lecture 6 Chapter 6 Long Term Memory Key terms: 1. Declarative -> episodic and semantic 2. Procedural 3. Distinguish between long term memory from short term memory - serial position, curve and effect - Neuropsychology (the patient HM) (Clive wearing) (the patient K.F.) 4. Coding in Short term (v...

Lecture 6 Chapter 6 Long Term Memory Key terms: 1. Declarative -> episodic and semantic 2. Procedural 3. Distinguish between long term memory from short term memory - serial position, curve and effect - Neuropsychology (the patient HM) (Clive wearing) (the patient K.F.) 4. Coding in Short term (visual coding, auditory coding) long term memory (semantic encoding) - Wicken 1976 - Sachs 1967 - Recognition, free call and cued recall 5. Neuropsychological approaches to the Study of STM - lesion studies - impairments - spared abilities - double dissociation between STM and LTM (the patient K.C) (Italian woman) 6. Ranganath & D’Esposito 2001 7. Types of LTM - Tulving 1985 = different between episodic and semantic 8. Separation of episodic and semantic memories - Levine 2004 9. Interaction between episodic and semantic memories 10. Familiarity (semantic memory) and recollection (episodic memory) 11. The effect of time - Patrician 2010 12. Implicit memory = Procedural memory and Priming, repetition priming 13. Implicit memory in everyday experience • Perfect and Askew 1994 • Classical conditioning: e.g. Little Albert Distinction between STM and LTM 1. Serial position curve to test Primacy effect Murdoch 1962 indication: memory is better for words at the beginning or at the end of the list than words in the middle key term: Primacy effect S - superior memory for stimuli presented at the beginning of a sequence - the longer rehearsal time available for the earlier words on the list procedure: 1. Ppt had time to rehearse these words and transfer them to LTM 2. Ppt begin rehearsing the first word right after it is presented 3. When the second word is presented, attention becomes spread over two words, and so on -> less rehearsal is possible for latter words Rundus 1971 procedures: primacy effect rehearse more -> likely to enter LTM 1. presenting a list of 20 words at a rate of 1 word every 5 seconds 2. ask ppt to write down all words they could remember 3. experimental group: ask ppt to study the list as it was being presented by repeating the words out loud during the 5 -second intervals between words 4. ppt were not told which words to repeat result: red curve demonstrate the same primacy and recency effect = word presented early in the list were rehearsed more -> more likely to be remembered later 2. Serial position curve to test Recency effect Glanzer & Cunitz 1966 key term: Recency effect • memory better for stimuli presented at the end of list • stimuli: the most recently presented words are still in STM procedure: 1. ppt count backward for 30 seconds right after hearing the last words of the list -> counting prevented rehearsal and allowed time for information to be lost from STM results: blue dashed curve • delayed caused the counting -> eliminated the recency effect = recency effect is due to storage of recently presented items in STM 3. Coding in short term & long term memory key term: coding • the form stimuli are represented 1. Visual coding • (STM) Recalling visual patterns: remember a pattern by representing it visually in mind • (LTM) Create a picture in your mind of a person/ place from the past e.g use a visual LTM coding when you are recalling the wonderful view from your holiday / recall a face of your friend when you surprised him at his birthday party (pictures cannot put into words) 2. Auditory coding • (STM) the phonological similarity effect: people misidentify a target letter as another letter because they sound similar ‘F’ ’S’. • (LTM) coding occurs when you play a sound in your head / when listening to a CD that has a short period of silence between tracks, people ‘hear’ the beginning of the next music during the silence period. = the auditory representation from LTM is triggered by the end of the previous song. 3. Semantic coding • (STM) Wicken 1976 Procedure: 1. Each trial, ppt were presented with words related to ‘Fruits group’ and ‘profession groups’ 2. Ppt in each group first listened to three examples e.g. banana, peach, apple ‘Fruit group’ 3. Ppt count backward for 15 seconds, then attempt to recall the three words 4. They did this for a total of 4 trial. Ppt recalled the words so soon after hearing them, they were supposedly using their STM. Semantic coding in STM To test using proactive interference to demonstrate semantic coding in STM • Proactive interference is expected to occur when words are from the same category were presented in a series of trails. Procedures are same as the ‘Fruit group’ key term: release from proactive interference Result: • Profession groups performance is high in trail 1 and then drops in trial 2 and 3 • Trail 4: the names of fruits were presented, which are from different semantic category • Proactive interference built up as the professions were being presented in the first three - trials is stopped, therefore performance increase in trial 4. 3 Coding in LTM Semantic coding Sachs 1967 • (LTM) Procedure: 1. Ppt first listened to a tape recording of a passage 2. Ppt were given 4 multiple choices and asked to indicate whether they remembered the exact wording of some sentences in the passage or just the general meaning of the passage. result: - can’t remember specific wordings but remember the general meaning for a long time - descriptions in term of meaning proved semantic coding in LTM 'T E 4. Free recall: minimal information from experimenter e.g. simply says ‘remember’ and the context is implied e.g. fill in the blanks exam questions 5. Cue recalled: experimenter also gives parts of information or some related information Neuropsychology Locating memory in the brain 1. the patient H.M. Purpose: to eliminate his severe epileptic seizures ~facial , shape form ~memory procedure: removal a large part of H.M.’s medial temporal lobe, including the hippocampus on both sides of his brain -> decrease his seizures and unintended outcome of eliminating his ability to form new LTM H.M. situation: • STM remain intact (complete) - could remember what had just happened • Unable to transfer any of this information into LTM • Hippocampus : play a role in forming new LTM • STM and LTM are separate regions VSTM X LTM 2. Clive Wearing Clive Wearing situation: • Brain damage: destroyed parts of his medial temporal lobe include hippocampus and amygdala • live within recent one or two minutes of his life e.g. if he meets someone and the person left the room and return in 3 minutes, Wearing reacts as if he hadn’t met the person earlier. result = proved STM & LTM are divided Both H.M. and Wearing’s situation = hippocampus is crucial for LTM and but not STM X LTM U STM LTM) 3. K.F. X episodic memory ULTM K.F. ’s situation: XSTM • Normal LTM but poor STM • suffered parietal lobe damage • Poor STM: strongly reduced digit span of 2 (normal people is 5-9 digits) • Free call: Recency effect of serial position curve is reduced • Intact LTM: his ability to form and hold new memories of events in his life Double dissociation STM H.M. Clive Wearing K.F * LTM 3 Ok impaired No hippocampus impaired Ok No parietal STM & LTM are independent. Brain imaging Ranganath and D’Esposito 2001 purpose: to examine whether the hippocampus, we now know is crucial for forming new long term memories and might in holding information for short period of time. procedure: 1. Present a sequence of stimuli to ppt as they were having brain scanned 2. A sample face was presented for 1 second 3. 7 seconds delay period 4. a test face is presented 5. Ppt were asked to decide whether test face matched the sample face In ‘familiar face’ condition, they saw faces that they had seen prior to the experiment. Hippocampus increased as ppt were holding novel faces in memory during the 7 seconds delay but hippocampus changed slightly for the familiar faces results: • hippocampus is involved in maintaining novel information in memory in short delays • hippocampus & medial temporal lobe structures once thought to be involved only in LTM and STM • STM & LTM are not disconnected and independent: especially novel stimuli e.g. faces, foreign language words that you have never seen/heard before Distinctions between episodic & semantic memory : Differences in experience Types of Long Term Memory Episodic memory: experiences Semantic memory: facts distinguish STM and LTM based on the information remembered. Tulving 1985 Suggestion: difference between episodic and semantic memory can be distinguished based on the type of experience associated with each Key term: mental travel time definition: the experience of travelling back in time to reconnect with events that happened in the past In Episodic memory: e.g. I can travel back in my mind to remember climbing the Eiffel Tower and enjoying the panoramic view over Paris. I can also remember some of the emotions I was experiencing and other details such as sun on my skin, and the expectation of what we were going to see next = I remember this incident. I feel as if I am reliving it. —> mental traveling time: self-knowing or remembering : people need to travel back in time of encoding and learning period to determine which items they have studied/ seen/ heard before. In Semantic memory: Definition: accessing knowledge about the world that does not have to be tied to remember a personal experience or specific encoding/ encoding period. e.g. facts, vocabulary, numbers and concepts. —> people are travelling back to a specific event from our past but we are accessing things we are familiar with and know about. e.g. I know about Paris, where it is located, famous for its Eiffel Tower and capital of France but I can’t exactly remember when I learned these things. Episodic vs Semantic LTM: Neuropsychology Distinguish between STM & LTM + Episodic & Semantic memory 1. the patient K.C. patient K.C.’s situation: • damage in hippocampus and surrounding structures -> lost in episodic memory => no longer relive any of the events of his past => know the certain things in his past correspond to semantic memory e.g. he is aware of the fact that his brother died 2 years ago but can’t remember personal experiences related to his death such as what he experienced at the funeral e.g. he remembers eating utensils are located in the kitchen => he lost episodic part but not semantic part 2. An Italian woman Italian woman’s situation: • opposite to K.C. situation • lost in semantic memory *** suffered encephalitis -> difficulty recognising familiar people, trouble shopping in the store because she can’t remember the meaning of words on the shopping list, no longer recognise famous people or recall facts like identity • remember events in her life and form new episodic memory e.g. she remember what she had done during the day and things that had happened two months ago. K.C. Italian woman semantic Ok episodic impaired impaired Ok Separation Episodic and Semantic memories 1. Levine 2004 purpose: fMRI shows areas activated by episodic and semantic memories procedure: 1. Ppt were asked to keep diaries on audiotape describing everyday personal events 2. Ppt were asked to keep diaries on facts drawn from their semantic knowledge 3. Ppt were listening to their audiotape while scanning their brain under fMRI result: - Yellow areas: brain area associated with episodic memories - Blue areas: brain area associated with semantic, factual knowledge (person/non-personal) => yellow and blue overlapped areas => episodic and semantic memories are interacted Interaction between episodic & semantic memory knowledge & Semantic (how to play) Knowledge affect experience • British or Indian wholearned to play cricket from an early age onwards, will have a episodic completely difference experience watching a cricket than someone from Germany, who have never seen such match before and no idea about rules and manoeuvre. = our knowledge (semantic memory) guides our experience and influences the episodic memories that follow from that experiences. ↑ Knowledge -> semantic memory Experiences S Episodic memory ↳ autobiographical memory contains both semantic and episodic component autobiographical memory: memory for specific experiences from our life, which can include both episodic and semantic components. e.g. consider the autobiographical memory “When I met Paul and Joanna at the coffee place Café Central yesterday, we sat at our favourite table, which is located near the window and often occupied on Friday afternoon when most people have finished work.” Personal semantic memory: semantic component: memory of facts associated with personal experiences e.g. There is another coffee place — Espresso Lab - down the road from the Café Central. What happens to episodic and semantic memories as time passes? Different gradations and qualities of forgetting and remembering. 1. Familiarity example 1 : That person looks familiar. Where did I meet him? example 2 : There’s Erik. Where did I meet him? • the person seems familiar and you might remember the name, but you can’t remember any details about specific experience involving that person. • Associate with semantic memory because it is not associated with the circumstances under which knowledge was acquired. 2. Recollection example 3 : There’s Erik, who I met at the coffee shop last Monday. We talked about the weather. • remembering specific experiences related to the person • associated with the episodic memory because it includes details about what was happening when the knowledge was acquired and an awareness of the event as it was experienced in the past. Recollection & Familiarity are measured using the remember/ know procedure. The effect of time Petrican 2010 Key word: semanticisation of remote memories purpose: how people’s memory for public events changes over time by presenting descriptions of events that had happened over a 50-year period older adult. procedures: 1. remember. If the stimulus is familiar and they also remember the circumstances under which they originally encountered. 2. know. If the stimulus seems familiar but they don’t remember experiencing it earlier 3. don’t know. If they don’t remember the stimuli at all result: • Complete forgetting increased over time (red bar) • remember responses decreased (episodic) much more than know responses (semantic) -> meaning that memories for 40-50 year old events had lost much of their episodic character semanticisation of remote memories - loss of episodic detail for memories of long-ago events. Mental Time Travel Key term: Shorter-term semanticisation and semanticisation of remoto memory Addis 2007 purpose: this loss of episodic details has been demonstrated both long-ago events and short period as one week Shorter-term semanticisation: consider personal experiences e.g. remember the details of what you did earlier today or yesterday but fewer details about what happened a week ago semanticisation of remoto memory: how you have acquired the knowledge that makes up your semantic memories e.g. when you were in the last year of your primary school, you may have learned that Caesar was murdered 44 BC, one year after he announced himself as the absolute leader of the Roman Empire. Right after learning this, you might have found it easy to remember what was going on in the class. You might find it easy to remember what the teacher showed you about the Romans, what the classroom looked like… etc -> remember all these details about the circumstances of learning comes under the heading of episodic memory. -> the fact how and when Caesar died is semantic memory. many years later e.g. you may remember the semantic memory about the murder of Caesar but forget the episodic memory about the specific day you learned that information semantic memory: the knowledge of semantic memory is initially attained through personal experiences that are the basis of episodic memory (but episodic memory faded, only semantic memory remains. Types of Long Term Memory 1. Implicit memory • when learning from experience is not accompanied by conscious remembering. e.g. we do many things without being able to explain how we do them. These abilities come under the heading of procedural memories. 2. Explicit memory and declarative memory • we are aware of and can talk about or declare e.g. tell someone about about vocation (episodic memory) and knowing the direction (semantic memory) 3. procedural memories = Skilled memory • memory for doing something that usually involved learned skills. e.g. tying your shoes. You may had a hard time describing and explaining to another person how you did it. application: 1. Clive Wearing 2. Amnesic patients can master new skills even though they don’t remember any of the practise that led to this mastery 3. H.M. whose amnesia was caused by having his hippocampus removed (impaired forming LTM) , practised a task called ‘mirror drawing’ which involve copying a picture that is seen in a mirror. -> he became quite good at mirror drawing but he can’t form LTM so he always thought he was practising the first time. => illustrate the implicit nature of procedural memory ~implicity explicit x amnesia Key concepts: 1. STM and LTM are interdependent 2. Procedural memory is different Parkinson ~ Explicit-> memory I no dissociate hippocampus U procedural procedural memory . Priming, Repetition priming, Lexical decision task key terms: Priming, Repetition priming, Lexical decision task 1. Priming • when presentation of one stimulus (the prime stimulus) changes the way a person responds to another stimulus (the test stimulus) 2. Repetition priming • FECUL when the test stimulus is the same as or resembles the priming stimulus. • called implicit memory because the priming effect can occur even though ppt may not consciously remember the presentation the priming stimuli. e.g. seeing the word bird may cause you to respond more quickly to a later presentation of bird than to a word you had not seen, even though you may not remember seeing bird earlier * 3. Lexical decision task • Ppt have to indicate as quickly as possible whether a presented letter string is a word (bird, mask) or non- word (stril, daft). … Graf 1985 purpose: test implicit / explicit memory -> to ensure a person doesn’t remember the presentation of the priming stimulus is to test patients with amnesia procedure: three groups of ppts 1. Amnesia patients with Korsakof’s syndrome(alcohol abuse, do not have ability to form LTM) 2. Patients do not have amnesia who were under treatment for alcoholism 3. Patients without amnesia who had no history of alcoholism procedure: 1. Ppt were asked to read a 10-word list and rate how much they like each word -> ppt to focus on rating the words rather than on committing the words to memory 2. After rating, ppt were asked to recall the words they had read 3. word completion test is a test of implicit memory - proved - contain first 3 letters of the 10 words that ppt had seen earlier (experimental group) - the first 3 letters of 10 words they had not seen earlier (control group) result: • implicit memory is present in experimental group, comparatively many word stems are completed with the words that had been presented before • the Amnesia patients recalled fewer words than the two control groups • the Amnesia patients poor recalled confirms the poor explicit memory associated with - their Amnesia • word completion test -> the priming words that were created indicate the Amnesia patients performed just as well as the controls. • the (alcohol)Korsakof patients perform as well as the two non- amnesia groups, even though they had poor memory in the recall test. Implicit memory in Everyday Experience TBP. 182 -> biased information key terms: Propagranda effect Perfect and Askew (1994) purpose: implicit memory affect our behaviour without our awareness when we are exposed to advertisement procedure: 1. ask ppt to scan articles in magazine 2. each page of print was faced by an advertisement but ppt were not told to pay attention to the advertisement 3. ppt were asked to rate a number of advertisement on various dimensions such as how appealing, eye-catching 4. Ppt gave higher ratings to the ones they had been exposed to results: • an effect of implicit memory because when the ppt were asked to indicate which advertisement had been presented at the beginning of the experiement, they only recognise an average 2.8 out of 25 advertisement • Propagranda effect : ppt are more likely to rate statements they have read or heard before as being true, simply because they have been exposed to them before. => it involves implicit memory because it can operate even when people are not aware that they have heard or seen the statement before, and may even have thought it was false when they first heard it Lecture 7 Chapter 7 Long Term Memory: Encoding, retrieval and consolidation 1. Getting information into LTM (P. 188) • Encoding • Retrieval • maintenance rehearsal • elaborate rehearsal 2. Level of processing theory • Craik & Lockhard 1072 • Death of processing 3. Levels of processing theory • Craik & Tulving 1975 4. Be ware of circular reasoning 5. Other factors that aid encoding 6. Demonstration • Jenkins & Russell 1952 7. Organisation, comprehension and memory • Bransford & Johnson 1972 8. Other factors that aid encoding 9. Retrieval practice 10. Retrieving information from LTM 11. Matching conditions of encoding and retrieval 12. Encoding specificity 13. State dependent learning 14. Matching the cognitive task 15. Transfer-appropriate processing 16. Spacing Effect in learning 17. Consolidation 18. Information storage at the synapse 19. The fragility of new memories 20. Consolidation and sleep: enhancing memory 21. Consolidation in sleep depends on expectation 22. Are memories ever ‘Permanent’? • Nader 2000 • PTSD study : - Brunet 2008 - Hupbach 2007 23. Improving learning and memory Getting information into LTM key concept: some methods of encoding is more effective than others. 1. Encoding • F refer to the process used to get information into LTM e.g. a word can be encoded by repeating it over and over again, by thinking of other words that rhyme with it or by using it in a sentence 2. Coding #3 E • refer to the form in which information is represented e.g a word can be coded visually or by its sound or by its meaning. 3. Retrieval • involve some of the encoded information and transferring it from LTM into working memory to become consciously aware of it • the process of transferring information from LTM to working memory • to get information out again when needed, e.g. answer exam questions • whether or not you can retrieve information from LTM is depend on the way information was encoded when you learned it * encode -> retrieval -> memory elaborative -> retrieval -> rehearsal memory Encoding : Getting information into LTM 1. maintenance rehearsal • repeating information without considering meaning or making connections to other information A -> typically result in poor memory when you don’t use the information e.g. holding a phone number in your memory by repeating it over and over. If you do this without any consideration of meaning or making connections with other information. 2. Elaborative rehearsal • ~ deep processing Vretrieval to level working memory . repeating information with considering meaning or making connections to other information A -> typically result in better memory => maintenance rehearsal and Elaborative rehearsal how encoding can influence the ability to retrieve memories I Level of processing theory Craik and Lockhard 1972 theory: memory depends on the depth of processing that an item receives 1. Shallow processing • little attention to meaning e.g. when a phone number is repeated over and over, or when attention is focused on a word’s physical features such as whether it is printed in lowercase or capital letters. 2. Deep processing • closes attention to meaning • focusing on an item’s meaning and relating it to something else => Shallow processing and Deep processing Deep processing results in better memory than Shallow processing Craik and Lockhart 1972 Purpose: a prototypical example of a levels- of- processing experiment • present words to ppt and asked them three different types of questions 1. A question about the physical features of the word. e.g. participants see the word bird and are asked whether it is printed in capital letter 2. A question about rhyming e.g. ppt see the word train and are asked if it rhymes with the word pain 3. A fill-in-blanks question e.g. ppt see the word car and are asked if it fits into the sentence ‘he saw a ___ on the street.’ (1) physical features: shallow processing (2) rhyming : deep processing (3) fill-in-blanks question: deepest processing To test ppt’s memory, ppt were given a memory test to see how well they recalled the words Limitation of level of reasoning e.g. how do we know that the fill-in-the blanks task results in deeper processing than the rhyming task? encoding task results in better memory performance how can we remember words better? Example of circular reasoning • depth of processing test has not been defined independently of memory performance Current memory research rarely uses level of processing • widely accepted -> retrieval is affected by how information is encoded Other factors aid encoding 1. Forming visual imagery Bower and Winzenz 1970 Purpose: to test whether using visual imagery can create connections that enhance memory Procedure: Paired-associate learning • a list of word pairs is presented at encoding • during the test phase, the first word of each part is presented and the ppt’s task is to remember the word it was paired with. • presented a list of 15 pairs of nouns, e.g. boat-tree to ppt for 5 seconds each • Group A: ppt was told to silently repeat the pairs as item were interacting • Group B: ppt were given the first word and asked to recalled the second one for each pair results • Group B ppt who had created images in their mind remembered more than twice as many words as the Group A ppt who had just repeated the word pairs. factor aid encoding:Linking words to yourself Key terms: Self- reference effect Roger 1977 purpose: memory is better if you are asked to relate a word to yourself procedure: 1. uses depth-of-processing experiment 2. Ppt read a question for three seconds then saw a word 3. they had to provide an answer to a yes or no question 4. The question is “describes you?” e.g. ‘Printed in small case?’ happy ‘Rhymes with happy?’ snappy ‘Means the same as happy’ upbeat ‘Describe you?’ happy result: • ppt are likely to remember the words that they had rated as describing themselves • more detailed described representations in a person’s mind result in better memory explanation: • the word become linked to something the ppt know very well like themselves factor aid encoding: Generalising information key word: Generation effect Slameka and Graf 1978 purpose : generating material yourself enhance learning and retention procedure: 1. Read group: read these pairs of related word, king- crown; horse - saddle etc 2. Generating group: fill in the blank with a word that is related to the first word, king- cr___; horse - sa___ etc result: • Generating group reproduce 28 percent more words than read group. Key word: retrieval cue retrieval cue • a word or stimulus that help a person remember information stored in memory Jenkins and Russels 1952 purpose: ppt spontaneously organise items as they recall them procedure: 1. a word in a particular category, fruit is the retrieval cue word for other words in that category 2. remember the word apple is a retrieval cue for other fruits such as grapes result; • create a recall list that is more organised than the original list that you read • words presented randomly but organised in the mind Words presented in an organised way during encoding Bower, Clark, Winzenz 1969 procedure: 1. present material to be learned in an ‘organisational tree’ which prearranged a number of words according to particular categories in a hierarchical format mineral- / L metal / L rare - platinum silver gold , , stones clothing - ↓ cronman fr aluminium Transporting - copper lead iron 2. One group of ppt study four separate ‘organisational tree’ for minerals, animals, clothing and transporting respectively for one minute each 3. Ppt were asked to recall as many words as they could from all ‘trees’ result: • in the recall test, ppt tended to organise their responses in the same way as that the tree was organised, for example, mineral, then metal, and so on • ppt in this group recalled an average of 73 words from all four trees. • another group of ppt, they also saw all four trees, but the words were mixed up • they were able to remember only 21 words from all trees => reorganising material to be remember result in better recall Chapter 11 P.345 Organisation, comprehension and memory key words: Making inference 推斷 - determine what the text means by using our knowledge to go beyond the information provided by the text Brandsford and Johnson 1973 procedure: 1. Ppt were asked to read passages ' John was fixing the house when his dad came out and help him’ 2. Ppt were tested on what they could remember ‘John was holding a hammer to fix the birdhouse…’ 3. After reading the passage, ppt were likely to indicate they had previously seen the following passage even though they didn’t read that John was using a hammer result: - because ppt inferred that John was using a hammer from the information that he was pounding the nail. TBP. 240 Von Restorff effect : Isolation effect • an encoding advantage for distinctive stimuli • finding distinctiveness or un-expectancy aid memory TBP. 193 Retrieval practice effect procedure: 1. Re- Read: re-reading the material 2. Retrieval practice: being tested on the material result: - proved testing effect, enhance performance due to retrieval practice - provide connections between the materials to aid encoding Retrieval cue key words: retrieval cue • words or other stimuli that help us remember information stored in our memory key words: retrieval • getting information out of memory • retrieval cues: 1. The use of retrieval cue or ‘hint’ 2. Matching encoding and retrieval conditions • explain why studied hard on exam but can’t come up with an answer when taking an exam Tulving and Pearlston 1966 purpose: to demonstrate retrieval cues aid memory procedure: to remember a list of words 1. Free call group: write down as many words as possible in recall 2. Cued recall group: provided with the names of categories (bird, funiture) result: • Free call group: recalled 40 percent of words • Cued recall group: recalled 75 percent of the words Mantyla 1986 purpose: to prove retrieval cue aid memory procedure: 1. a list of 504 nouns such as banana, freedom, tree 2. study phrase: ppt were told to write three words associated with each noun e.g. banana might be yellow , bunches, edible 3. Test phrase: ppt were presented with he three words they had generated (self- generated retrieval cue) for half of the nouns, or with words that someone else had generated (other person generated retrieval cues) for other half of the nouns. 4. the task is to remember the noun they had seen during the study phase The cue is effective to the person who created them results: • when the self- generated retrieval cues were presented -> ppt remember 91 percent of the words • when other person generated retrieval cues were presented -> ppt remember 55 percent of the words Three different ways to achieve matching 1. Encoding specificity • encode information along with its context Godden and Baddeley 1975 purpose: demonstrate coding specificity ‘diving experiment’ procedure: 1. one group: ppt studied a list of word under water 2. another group: ppt studied a list of word on land result: • by the numbers show that the best recall occurred when encoding and retrieval occurred in the same location 1. Noisy and quiet encoding Grand 1998 Procedure: 1. the ppt read an article on psycho-immunology while wearing headphones 2. the ppt in the ‘quiet’ condition heard nothing in the headphone 3. the ppt in the ‘noise’ condition heard a tape of background noise recording result: • ppt were given a short-answer test under quiet situation • other ppt were given a short-answer test under noisy situation = ppt did better when the testing condition matched the study condition 2. State-dependent learning key word: state-dependent learning • learning that is associated with particular internal state such as mood or awareness Eich and Metcalfe 1989 purpose: demonstrate memory is better when a person ’s mood during retrieval matches his or her mood procedure: 1. ppt were asked to think positive thoughts while listening to cheery happy song / depressed thoughts while listening to sad song 2. ppt rated their mod while listening to the music 3. the encoding part of the experiment began when their rating reached ‘very pleasant’ or ‘very unpleasant’ 4. Once this occurred, usually within 15-20 minutes, ppt studied lists of words while in their positive or negative mood 5. Two weeks later, both groups did a memory test result: • they did better when their mood at retrieval matched their mood during encoding 3. Transfer-appropriate processing key word: Transfer-appropriate processing • matching the task involved in encoding and retrieval procedure: part 1: encoding 1. ppt heard a sentence with one word replaced by ______ silence and two seconds later they heard a target word 2. two encoding conditions: 1. in the meaning condition: the task was to answer ‘yes’ or ‘no’ based on the meaning of the word when it filled in _______. 2. In the rhyming condition: ppt answer ‘yes’ or ‘no’ based not he sound of the word part 2 : retrieval 1. ppt answered to a list of word ‘yes’ if the word rhymed with target words presented in the encoding stage / answer ‘no’ of the word didn’t. result: - ppt’s retrieval performance was better when the retrieval task matched the encoding task e.g. ppt focused on rhyming during encoding remembered more words than ppt who had focused on meaning - ppt focused on the sound during the part 1 did better when the test also involved focusing on sound => better performance when the type of processing matches in encoding and retrieval deeper processing at encoding (meaning) doesn’t always result in better retrieval TBP. 216 • study in a number of shorter study sessions rather than trying to learn everything at once • support sleep after studying can improve consolidation Consolidation key words: Consolidation TBP. 203 • the process that transforms new memories from a fragile state, in which they can be disrupted to a more permanent state, in which they are resistant to disruption. Encoding, retrieval and consolidation are three important process of memory. Muller and Pilzecder 1900 procedure: 1. Two groups of ppt learnt lists of nonsense syllables 2. The immediate group: learnt first list and then immediately learnt a second list 3. The delay group: learnt first list and then wait for 6 minutes before learning the second list result: - the delay group remember 48 percent of the syllables - the immediate group remember 28 percent of the syllables because learning the second list interrupt the forming of a stable memory for the first list two types of consolidation: 1. synapses consolidation • take place over minutes or hours, involves structural changes at synapses • faster 2. system consolidation • take places over monts or even years, involves the gradual reorganisation of neural circuit within the brain • slower = both synapse and system consolidation occur together but at different speeds and different level of nervous system Synaptic consolidation: Experience causes changes at the synapse Hebb 1984 purpose: learning and memory are represented in the brain by physiological changes that take place at the synapse procedure: 1. assume particular experience happened causes nerve impulses to travel down the axon of neuron A 2. When these impulses reach the synapse, the neurotransmitter is released onto neuron B result: - the repeated activity can strengthen the synapse by causing structural changes, greater transmitter release and increased firing - new memories are formed not by the formation of new cells but by strengthening of connections between already existing neurons = cells that fire together wire together Long term potentiation (LTP) key words: long term potentiation • enchanted firing of neurons after repeated stimulation • the first neuron A is stimulated, neuron B fires slowly • repeated stimulation, neuron B fires much more rapidly to the same stimuli result: neural records of an experience • indicate how experiences can cause changes at the synapse e.g. memory from experience cause changes in many thousands of synapse and a specific experience presented by the pattern of firing across this group of neurons Systems consolidation: the hippocampus and the cortex the case of the patient H.M. : damage in hippocampus, can’t form new memory purpose: to determine the exact role of hippocampus and how it participates in the process of system consolidation -> prose the sequence steps of standard model of consolidation key words: standard model of consolidation 1 incoming information activates a numbers of areas in the cortex • activation is distributed across the cortex because memories involve many sensory and cognitive areas e.g. your memory for last new year eve could include sights, sounds, and smell, emotions you ere feeling and thoughts you were thinking at the stroke of midnight - the cortex communicates with the hippocampus indicates the coloured lines -> hippocampus coordinates the communication between different cortical areas key words: retrograde amnesia • loss of memory for events that occurred before the injury key words: Graded amnesia • the amnesia tends to be most severe for events that happened just before the injury and to less severe for earlier events -> recent memory is affected more because memory is not 2. major consolidation: reactivation - a process of the hippocampus ‘replays’ the neural activity associated with a memory • activity occurs in the network direct connecting the hippocampus and the cortex 3. cross-cortical consolidation • Hippocampus is like a glue for recent memory and overtime the involvement of hippocampus become weaker = remote memory = brain area directly connect = hippocampus not involve = retrieval depends on hippocampus during consolidation, after consolidation hippocampus is no longer needed Standard model Stage 1 TBP. 206 • Hippocampus is strongly active when memories are first formed and initially recalled • Becomes less involved as memories are consolidated • To retrieve remote memories (memory for events occurred long ago) -> the connection between cortical areas themselves are sufficient Multiple trace of model of consolidation • the hippocampus is involved in retrieval of episodic memories, even memory is originated long ago Giboa 2004 • recent and remote episodic memories by showing ppt photographs of themselves engaging in various activities that were taken at times ranging from very recently to the distant past like 5 years old result: • the hippocampus was activated during retrieval of both recent and remote episodic memory fMRI experiment Harand 2012 Procedure: 1. ppt are required to memories 192 pictures differed in valence (positive, neural, negative) 2. the fMRI Tok place three days later when ppt performed a recognition test -> the test involve the study pictures were shown again with large number of new ones 3. Ppt had four response options ‘remember’, ‘know’, ‘guess’ or ‘new’ ‘remember’= could remember specific details, ‘know’= familiaity results: • remember responses dropped from the 3-day to 90-day delayed period • Hippocampus much larger for RR than Rk response = hippocampus remain stable over time for episodic memories, but decreased significantly for those episodic memories that became semantic over time Consolidation and sleep: Enhancing memory Gais 2006 Purpose: sleep enhance consolidation procedure: 1. by having German high school students learn a list of 24 pairs of English German vocal 2. Sleep group: studied and went to slept 3. Awake group: studied and stay awake for 10 hours before getting a night sleep results: • sleep group forgot less material than awake group reasons: sleeping avoid environmental stimuli that interfere with consolidation Reconsolidate studies Nader 2000 purpose: In PTSD, OCD addiction, reconsolidating after modifications is important procedure: 1. use classical conditioning to create a fear response in the rat comprising a ‘freeze’ response (not moving) to the presentation of tone -> pairing a tone with a shock => the rat stops when it hears the tone => memory for tone-shock pairing is indicated when the rat freezes to the tone 2. In three conditions, the rat receives a tone-shock pairing and injected with anisomycin: an antibiotic that inhibits protein to prevent change at the synapse that are responsible for the formation of new memory 3. The key is when the injection is made before consolidation: it eliminates memory after consolidation: it has no effect, the rat remember the tone-shock pairing, it freezes result: • memory becomes susceptible to being changed or disrupted every time it is retrieved. PTSD study Brunet 2008 purpose: practical outcome for reconsolidate memory, a treatment to PTSD procedure: 1. PTSD patients listened to a 30-second recording describing the circumstances of their traumatic experience and received propranolol 2. another group list to the a 30-second recording describing the circumstances of their traumatic experience and received placebo 3. one week later, both groups asked to imagine their traumatic experience and again listen to a 30-second recording describing the circumstances of their traumatic experience 4. measure their blood pressure and skin conductance to measure their reaction of imaging traumatic experience result: • ppt taken propranolol experienced much smaller increase of heart rate and skin conductance than the placebo group. • propranolol blocks the stress response in amygdala and reduced the emotional reaction associated with remembering trauma Hupbach 2007 • provide evidence for the effect of reactivation in human using the following procedure Procedure: Day 1: ppt studied a list of words naming everyday object, e.g. envelope,, teabag Day 2: - the reminded group: was reminded of their learning on Day 1 by being asked to remember their training session (without actually recalling the words) • after reminding, they immediately learn the second list of words - the non-reminded group: they learned a second list of words (with no reminder) - both groups were asked to on day 3 to remember the first list of words result: • the non-reminded group: recalled 45 percent of words from the first list; mistakenly remember 5 percent of the second list of words • the reminded group: recalled 36 percent of words from the first list; mistakenly remember 24 percent of the second list of words => the reminder of the training session is reactivation of memory -> on Day 1 acted as ‘opening the door’ to change the memory of the first list of words, Lecture 8 Chapter 8 Everyday memory and memory errors Autobiographical Memory (AM) key words: Autobiographical Memory (AM) • memory for specific experiences from our life, which can include both episodic and semantic components. Two characteristics of Autobiographical Memory (AM) 1. multidimensional • consist of spatial, emotional and sensory components e.g. patients who have brain damage that causes a loss of visual memory, without causing blindness, illustrates the importance of the sensory component of AM. e.g. patients who have lost their ability to recognise or visualise object, because of damage to visual cortex also have lost of AM. 2. We remember some events in our lives better than others Cabeza 2004 purpose: illustrates a difference between AM and laboratory memory procedure: 1. brain activation patterns were compared with 2 sets of stimulus photographs 2. one set: ppt took themselves (own photos) 3. another set: taken by someone else (lab photos) few days later 4. Ppt saw their own photos and the lab photos, and some new photos they have never seen -> indicate whether each stimulus was an own photo, lab photo or new photo -> Brain photos were measured by fMRI Result: • both own photos and lab photos: -> activated same structures in the brain ; - medial temporal lobe associated with episodic memory • parietal cortex involved in processing scenes • own photos caused more activation than the lab photos in the prefrontal cortex • prefrontal cortex: associate processing information about self • hippocampus: involve in recollection ‘mental time travel’ = add richness to autobiographical memories => elicit emotions which activate Amygdala Memory over the lifespan 1. Significant events in person’s life e.g. first date with someone you have long term relationship 2. highly emotional events e.g. birth of child 3. Transition points e.g. University life Key words: Reminiscence Bump Pillemer 1996 purpose: transition points in people’s lives appear to be