Bio Midterm Study Guide PDF

Tropical Rainforest Warm, Around the equator, lots of rain(200 to 400 cm), poor soil. Savanna Warm, Just off the equator, diverse animals, 30 to 50 cm. of rain. Dessert Hot, Central Australia, Northern Africa, less than 30 cm of rain. Chaparral 30 cm of rain, Mild to Hot, Coastal Areas and Medite...

Tropical Rainforest Warm, Around the equator, lots of rain(200 to 400 cm), poor soil. Savanna Warm, Just off the equator, diverse animals, 30 to 50 cm. of rain. Dessert Hot, Central Australia, Northern Africa, less than 30 cm of rain. Chaparral 30 cm of rain, Mild to Hot, Coastal Areas and Mediterranean, plants adapted to periodic fires. Temperate Grassland 25 to 75 cm. of rain, warm to cold, regions of relatively cold winter temperatures, hard for trees to grow. Temperate Broadleaf forest (Deciduous) 75 to 150 cm. of rain, 30 degrees to 30 degrees below ( Celsius ), Northern Hemisphere Coniferous Forest (Taiga) 75 to 100 cm of rain, cool to cold, North America, Asia, South of Arctic Circle, Slow plant growth due to thin acidic soil. Tundra less than 30 cm of rain, extremely cold, Arctic, Northwest Territories, Canada Polar Ice less than 30 cm of rain, extremely cold, North of Tundra, Antarctica Rain Shadow When clouds full of water hit mountain ranges the water condenses and falls on one side of the mountain leaving the other side dry. Acidic 6 to 0 on the PH scale, higher concentration of hydrogen ions, Ex: Vinegar, (H+) Basic 8 to 14 on the PH scale, higher concentration of hydroxide ions, Ex: bleach, (OH-) First Law of Thermodynamics Law of conservation of energy; Energy cannot be created or destroyed Second Law of Thermodynamics Energy conversion increases the entropy (disorder) of the universe. Temperature measures the intensity of heat, the average speed of molecules in a body of matter. Heat Thermal energy in transfer from a warmer body to a cooler body of matter. Vitamin An organic nutrient that an organism requires in small quantities. Many serve as coenzymes or part of coenzymes. Mineral A simple inorganic nutrient that an organism requires in small amounts for proper body function. The three subatomic particles of an atom Protons (positive), Neutrons (neutral), Electrons (negative) Hydrogen Bond A type of weak chemical bond formed when the slightly positive hydrogen atom of a polar covalent bond in one molecule is attracted to the slightly negative atom of a polar covalent bond in another molecule. Ex: H2O Water to Water Molecule Two molecules of hydrogen react with one molecule of oxygen to produce two molecules of water. Properties of water Water\'s hydrogen bonds moderate temperature, Water is cohesive (molecules stick to same kind of molecules), Water is Adhesive (substance sticking to another substance), Water is a solvent (dissolver) Heating up water Heat must be absorbed to break the hydrogen bonds and the bonds must be broken to move the molecules faster and heat up the water. Thus, water is an absorber of heat. pH the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution. The pH scale (0-14) is the measure of hydrogen ions. 7 is neutral (pure water) Trace elements Elements that are necessary for humans but only in minute quantities. These include Sulfur, chlorine, Calcium, etc. Greenhouse Effect Solar radiation passes through the atmosphere and warms the Earth\'s surface. Uneven Heating by the sun can cause heat to increase/decrease, can cause rain to increase/decrease, causes the seasons (cooling and warming). This is due to the tilting of the Earth and its rotation. The scientific method Make observations, form hypothesis, test hypothesis, analyze data A good hypothesis A good hypothesis leads to predictions that can be tested by making additional observations or performing experiments. Control Group The base group, the group to show the neutral position, not the experimental group. Single Variable When there is only one variable being experimented or hypothesized on. Data Driven A prediction that is supported by data. Ecosystem all the organisms living and nonliving in a particular area Community The entire array of organisms in an ecosystem is called a community Population all the individuals of a particular species living in an area Organism an individual living thing Organ system several organs that cooperate in a specific function (nervous system, circulatory system) Organ made up of similar cells that perform a specific function. Cell the fundamental unit of life Organelle a membrane-enclosed structure that performs a specific function within a cell Molecule a cluster of small chemical units called atoms held together by chemical bonds. Air Temperature Warm air rises, cool are sinks Unsaturated Fat Has a hydrocarbon chain that contains one or more double bonds. Saturated Fats Has no double bonds. Has a maximum number of Hydrogen atoms. What foods provide essential amino acids proteins Polymer a long particle consisting of many similar parts Monomer The building blocks of polymers Dehydration Reaction How to link monomers into polymers (removes the water) Hydrolysis Breaking polymers down into monomers Different Types of Proteins storage, transport, defensive, signal, receptor, contractile, structural Carbohydrates simple sugars, element ratio 1:2:1, identifies with ending \"ose\", building block is monosaccharides, polymers are starch, glycogen, cellulose, and chitin Lipids (Fat) hydrocarbons or fatty acids, lipids are hydrophobic, unsaturated and saturated. Proteins amino acids, elements include Carbon,Hydrogen,Oxygen,Nitrogen, and Sulfur, identified with ending \"ase \'\', Excessive heat and salt concentration and pH can change a protein\'s shape. Nucleic Acids DNA, elements include Carbon, Oxygen, Hydrogen, and Nitrogen, two kinds are DNA and RNA, The 3 structural differences between DNA and RNA DNA is double strand, has Thymine, has deoxyribose. RNA is a single strand, has Uracil, has ribose. Light Microscope light passes through a specimen, then through glass lenses, and finally is projected into the viewers eyes. Pros: can view living things. Cons: Bad resolution, can only see things light can pass through Electron Microscope Cons: expensive, organisms have to be dead, have to be cut thin. Pros: can see a lot smaller and clearer. Scanning Electron Microscopes(SEM) are 3D external images while Transmitting Electron Microscopes(TEM) are really detailed and get small slices. Plant Cells Have cell walls, perform photosynthesis, have chloroplast, don;t have centrioles Animal Cells No cell walls, perform respiration, no chloroplast, have centrioles Prokaryotic Cells Were the first to evolve, are simpler, are usually smaller than Eukaryotic cells, developed before the nucleus, Ex: bacteria Eukaryotic Cells are found in plants, animals, fungi, and protists, are subdivided by membranes into various functional compartments or organelles including a nucleus that houses the DNA, have a nucleus, Ex: humans Tight Junction the plasma membranes of neighboring cells are knit tightly together by proteins Gap Junctions channels that allow small molecules to flow through protein lined pores between cells. Anchoring Junction Fasten cells together into strong sheets. Intermediate filaments made of sturdy proteins anchor these junctions in the cytoplasm. Cytoskeleton provides support, transportation, and holds organelles together. Plasma Membrane made of phospholipids, separates the cell from the environment, has proteins that do several jobs. Nuclear Envelope the wall around the nucleus Chromosomes coiled up DNA, hard to read, for storage and transportation Chromatin uncoiled DNA, easy to read, flat Nucleolus produces the ribosomes (protein factories) for the cell Rough ER (Endoplasmic Reticulum) has ribosomes, makes and packages the proteins Smooth ER (endoplasmic Reticulum) does not have ribosomes, makes carbohydrates and lipids and phospholipids, detoxifies structures. Mitochondria makes ATP, performs cellular respiration Golgi Apparatus Makes, packages, and modifies raw materials Lysosome has a membrane, has enzymes that are hydrolytic, breaks things down. 1. Digests things 2. Defend things 3. Recycles Microtubules highway system, hold the shape of the cell. Cell wall made of cellulose, found in plants Chloroplast turns energy from the sun into food for the plant Endomembrane System all made of the same phospholipid and protein structures. Able to combine and separate with each other. Includes the nuclear envelope, ER\'s, Golgi apparatus. Lysosomes, vacuoles, and plasma membranes. Stroma Fluid filled component of the Chloroplast Vacuoles transportation vehicles, forms around things to transport them. Base pairing rules A\'s go with T\'s and G\'s go with C\'s unless in RNA where A\'s go with U\'s Gene the unit of inheritance that transmits information from the parents to the offspring Karyotype a picture of the chromosome Solute What is being dissolved Solvent dissolver What is allowed to cross the Cell membrane things cannot be large and charged, if they are they need a transport protein to let them in. Hypertonic solution that causes water to move out of the cell. It has a higher concentration of solute Hypotonic Solution that absorbs water. It has less solute Isotonic solution that has a balanced amount of solute to solvent concentration Active Transport a cell must use energy to move a solute against the concentration gradient Passive Transport movement across the membrane caused by diffusion that the cell does not have to expend energy on Diffusion the tendency for particles of any substance to spread out into the available space. Sex link traits male pattern baldness, muscular distrophy, colorblindness, hemophelia. Only on the X\'s 5 steps to Punnett Square 1. Determine Parent Genotype 2. Determine Which parent Gametes 3. Outside Punnett Square 4. Inside Punnett Square 5. Analyze Data Genotype Gene that you have. The letters. Phenotype what the gene does to the organism. How it looks. Blood Type A I\^A I\^A = Anti B proteins Blood Type B I\^B I\^B = Anti A proteins Blood Type AB I\^A I\^B = Anti nothing Blood Type O Anti A and B proteins Griffith He looked for a vixen for pneumonia. He found two types of pneumococcal bacteria (Rough(R) and Smooth(s)). He heat treated the type S and R, mixed them, and found that this causes S or pneumonia. He called this the transforming factor. Hershey and Chase Used bacteriophages to show that DNA was the transforming Factor. They tagged DNA with radioactive phosphorus and proteins with radioactive sulfur. Wilkens and Franklin used X rays to take pictures of the DNA. Showed that it was in a twisted helix form and has an even width. Watson and Crick Put the model together. Said that it runs in an antiparallel arrangement. Linked Genes Genes on the same chromosome Point Mutation One of the letters is changed Silent Mutation something is changed but it does not affect the amino acid structure Missense Mutation changes the amino acid Nonsense Mutation codon is changed premature to a stop code Frameshift Mutation Deleting or adding one of the bases but still reading in groups of three HIV is an emerging virus that causes aids. This causes your immune system to fail Virus Is made up of DNA and a protein called capsid Retrovirus An RNA virus that reproduces by means of a DNA molecule Prions proteins that are misfolded and that self replicate. They infect Animals. Ex: Mad Cow Disease Antibodies created by your body to help defeat viruses Cell Cycle consists of two main stages: a growing stage called interphase during which the cell doubles everything in its cytoplasm and replicates its DNA and then the actual cell division occurs in the mitotic phase. Interphase consists of the S phase where the chromosomes are duplicated, the G2 phase where the cell grows more and completes preparations for cell division, it also has G1 where the new daughter cell proceeds after mitosis. Mitosis the nucleus and its contents (duplicated chromosomes) are divided and are evenly distributed forming two daughter nuclei. Meiosis consists of prophase 1, metaphase 1, anaphase 1, and telophase 1 (cytokinesis), these are the same for prophase 2 Prophase when the sister chromatids pair up, chromatin condenses into chromosomes, sister chromatids pair up, centrioles migrate toward the poles, nuclear envelope and nucleolus disappear, mitotic spindle forms. Metaphase When the sister chromatid pairs line up, microtubules push the centromeres to the center of the cell. Anaphase when the sister chromatid pairs separate by being pulled apart Telophase nucleus reforms, spindle network goes away, chromosomes go back to chromatin, nucleolus is reformed, nuclear envelope is reformed. (opposite of prophase) Increased Genetic Variety in Meiosis caused by independent orientation, arrangement of homologous chromosome pairs in metaphase 1, and random fertilization. Benign Tumor a tumor that stays in place, can cause issues when growing if they disrupt certain organs Malignant tumors tumors that can spread into neighboring tissues and invade other parts of the body. Binary Fission how prokaryotes reproduce, the chromosomes copy and move towards opposite ends splitting into two daughter cells. Homologous chromosomes chromosomes carrying genes that control the same inherited traits. Sister Chromatids joined copies of the original chromosome Controls of the cell cycle G1, G2, and S phases. S phase where the chromosomes are duplicated, the G2 phase where the cell grows more and completes preparations for cell division, it also has G1 where the new daughter cell proceeds after mitosis. Cellular Respiration O2 is consumed as sugar is broken down to CO2 and H2O; the cell captures the energy released in ATP. Occurs in the mitochondria. Stages include Glycolysis, Citric Acid Cycle, and Oxidative Phosphorylation. Glycolysis occurs in the cytosol of the cell. Begins cellular respiration by breaking glucose into two molecules of a three carbon compound called pyruvate. Pyruvate Oxidation Pyruvate is oxidized to a two-carbon compound. Citric Acid Cycle takes place in the mitochondria. Completes the breakdown of glucose to carbon dioxide. Supplies the third stage of Cellular Respiration with electrons while also producing small amounts of ATP. Oxidative Phosphorylation involves a process known as chemiosmosis. Produces ATp by the electrons from NADH and FADH2. Fermentation an opportunity for NADH to give back the high energy electrons. It is a way of harvesting chemical energy that does not require oxygen. Photosynthesis plants use solar energy to convert CO2 and H2O to sugars and other organic molecules, and they release O2 as a byproduct. Light Reactions Occur in the thylakoids, convert light energy to chemical energy and release O2. Calvin Cycle Occurs in the stroma of the chloroplast. A cycle that assembles sugar molecules using CO2 and the energy-rich products of the light reactions. ATP energy release ATP undergoes hydrolysis releasing its energy to the reaction. Photorespiration when the leaf has a build up of O2 so rubisco adds o2 instead of CO2 to RuBP. It consumes O2 and releases CO2 but it does not produce ATP but uses it and it yields no sugar. C4 plants As a way of combating photorespiration, the plant uses only one \"factory to perform photosynthesis. It uses the raw material from the closed \"factories\" to continue photosynthesis. Called a bundle sheath cell. Ex: crops CAM plants open their stomata at night to avoid evaporation and photorespiration. They hold the CO2 as an acid at night and release it to make glucose during the day. Ex: pineapple Oxidation the loss of electrons from a substance. Reduction the addition of electrons to another substance. FADH vs. NADH FADH produces 2 ATP and NADH produces 3 ATP Enzyme molecules that function as biological catalysts, increasing the rate of a reaction without being consumed by the reaction. Almost all are proteins. Active Site a pocket or groove on the surface of the enzyme where the reaction occurs. Substrate the specific reactant that an enzyme acts on. Goes into the active site. Competitive Inhibitor blocks the substrate molecules from entering the active sight reducing productivity of the enzyme. Noncompetitive inhibitor binds to the enzyme and changes the enzyme\'s shape. Catalyst makes a chemical reaction happen or happen quicker. Extra Understand how gene mapping works with crossing over and rates of traits showing up. Kow how to calculate if genes are linked. Know how to do an osmosis problem. Practice Punnet Squares. Know how to transcribe DNA using base pairing rules. Know how to translate RNA into protein with the chart.