Human Body Organization PDF
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Summary
These lessons cover the organization of the human body, from chemical to organism level. They also define anatomy and physiology, and describe various body systems. It includes information on homeostasis and feedback systems.
Full Transcript
LESSON 1: ORGANIZATION OF THE HUMAN BODY: ***Anatomy*** - Refers to the [internal] & [external structure]. ***Physiology*** - Science that studies [body functions]. *ANATOMY (STRUCTURE)\ PHYSIOLOGY (FUNCTION)* **LVLS OF ORGANIZATION**: 1. Ex: 2. 3. 4. Ex: Stomach, The Heart, Lungs 5....
LESSON 1: ORGANIZATION OF THE HUMAN BODY: ***Anatomy*** - Refers to the [internal] & [external structure]. ***Physiology*** - Science that studies [body functions]. *ANATOMY (STRUCTURE)\ PHYSIOLOGY (FUNCTION)* **LVLS OF ORGANIZATION**: 1. Ex: 2. 3. 4. Ex: Stomach, The Heart, Lungs 5. Ex:\ ***Integumentary System***- Skin, Hair, Glands, Nails ***Skeletal System*** - Bones, Cartilage, Ligaments, Tendons ***Nervous System*** - Brain, Spinal Cord ***Muscular System*** - Smooth, Skeletal, Cardiac Muscles ***Cardiovascular/Circulatory System*** - Heart, Blood Vessels, Blood ***Respiratory System*** - Lungs, Trachea, Airways ***Lymphatic System*** - Glands, Lymph Vessels, Nodes, Ducts ***Endocrine System*** - Pancreas, Thyroid, Pineal, Gonads ***Digestive System*** - Stomach, Mouth, Esophagus, Small and large intestine, Gallbladder, Anus\ ***Reproductive System*** - Uterus, Penis, Vagina, Testicles ***Urinary System*** - Kidneys, Bladder, Urethra 6. **AUTOPSY:** ***Post Mortem Examination*** - [Examination] & [dissection] of the body to *determine the cause of death*.\ When life processes haven't been maintained.\ \ *CATABOLISM* (Complex → Simple) - Ex: Proteins → Amino Acids\ (By digestive processes that catabolize) *ANABOLISM* (Simple → Complex) - Ex: Bone development, Muscle gain, Mineralization **LIVE PROCESSES**: - - - - - - **CLINICAL TERMS:** Disorder - Abnormality of structure/function\ Disease - Specific illness by signs & symptoms.\ Ex: Subjective → Anxiety\ Objective → Asthma **AGING & HOMEOSTASIS:** - - Ex: Body Temp\ Blood Pressure (BP) Water & Nutrient Levels **FEEDBACK SYSTEMS** Cycle of events in which the status of a body condition is: - - - - - BASIC COMPONENTS: - - - - **NEGATIVE FEEDBACK SYSTEMS**: Reverses the change in a CC (Controlled Condition)\ Most homeostatic control mechanisms are negative feedback systems.\ *(Negative means Opposite not Bad.)* Simplified Explanation:\ The body gives a response so that the change can go back to normal. These reverse a change in the variable.\ \ *(Bringing it back to normal)*\ Ex: HBP is detected then lowered to normal BP. **POSITIVE FEEDBACK SYSTEMS**: Few homeostatic mechanisms of this type. These systems strengthen change & need to be shut down by an external force.\ \ Easier Explanation:\ Your body reacts to change, but instead of trying to reverse it (like NFS) it continuously tries to force it externally until it breaks the cycle. Ex: - - - **ANATOMICAL TERMS** Precise use of language to define position, direction, location in the body. - - ![](media/image28.png) - - *Crania*l (Brain)\ *Vertebral* (Spinal Cord)\ *Thoracic* (Chest cavity)\ *Pleural/Pericardial & Mediastinal* (Region between the lungs) - - - - ![](media/image6.png) Right Upper Quadrant (RUQ)\ Left Upper Quadrant (LUQ)\ Right Lower Quadrant (RLQ) Left Lower Quadrant (LLQ) - - - ![](media/image26.png) LESSON 2: CELLS: PARTS & FUNCTIONS **Cell Structure:** - - - **Cell membrane:** - - - ![](media/image8.png) MEMBRANE FUNCTION: - - - - (Depending on which direction the active site faces.) - - (Unless you have an identical twin) ![](media/image44.png) **Membrane Function:** - - - - ***Intracellular (ICF)***/ *Intracellular Fluid* - - - ***Extracellular (ECF)** Extracellular Fluid* - - - - Difference between ICF & ECF: - - **PRINCIPLE OF DIFFUSION:** ***Diffusion*** - This is a passive process in which particles are randomly mixed in a solution because of its kinetic energy. Factors influencing diffusion rate across plasma membranes: - - - - - **3 Types of Diffusion:** ***Simple Diffusion:*** - High concentration region → Low concentration region (No protein or ATP is required) ![](media/image2.png)\ ***Requirements for Simple Diffusion:*** - - ***Pathways of Simple Diffusion:*** - - **Facilitated Diffusion:** - High concentration (with transport) → Lower concentration ![](media/image13.png) **Osmosis:** Diffusion of water across selectively permeable membrane: - - Types of solutions surrounding human RBCs - - - ***Isotonic*** - Any solution that has the [same] solute concentration and water concentration. ***Hypotonic*** - Has a [lower solute concentration] compared to the intracellular solute concentration. ***Hypertonic*** - Has a [higher solute concentration] compared to the intracellular solute concentration. **ACTIVE TRANSPORT:** - - - - - ***Primary Active Transport:*** - Lower concentration area → Higher concentration area ![](media/image17.png) ***Secondary Active Transport:*** ***Symporters*** - move 2 substances in the [same] direction\ → → → → → → → → → → → → → → → → → → ***Antiporters*** - move 2 substances in [opposite] directions\ → ← → ← → ← → ← → ← → ← → ← → ← → ← ***Transport in Vesicles:*** - - ***Endocytosis*** - [Importing] materials into the cell. ***Phagocytosis*** - [Ingestion of particles] such as bacteria into white blood cells (WBCs) ***Pinocytosis*** - Ingestion [of fluid] ***Exocytosis*** - [Exporting] materials ***2 Main types of Phagocytosis:*** ***Macrophages*** - Located in many body tissues ***Neutrophils*** - Type of white blood cell ***Pinocytosis (Bulk-Phase Endocytosis)*** - ![](media/image35.png) ***Exocytosis:*** - 1. 2. **CELL ORGANELLES:** - - - - - - - ***Cytoplasm:*** - - - **Cytoskeleton:** - - - - ***Cytoskeleton*** - A structure that helps the cell *maintain* its [shape] and [internal organization]. Also provides mechanical support that allows it to do *movement* and *division*. **Centrosome:** Structure - - - - Function - Moves chromosomes to the ends of the cell during cell division. **Cilla & Flagella:** - ***Cilla*** - in groups - ![](media/image27.png) ***Flagellum*** - [Single tails-like] structure on sperm - **Ribosomes:** - - - - - Endoplasmic Reticulum = (ER) ![](media/image36.png) **Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)** Structure - *Network* of folded membranes Functions - [synthesis] of glycoproteins and phospholipids intracellular transport **Types of ER:** ***Rough ER*** - [Studded] with ribosomes (Sites of protein synthesis) ***Smooth ER*** - [lacks] ribosomes - - - - - **Golgi Complex:** Structure - Flattened membranes (cisterns) w/ bulging edges (pita bread daw???) ![](media/image14.png) ??? Functions - *Modify proteins* → glycoproteins and lipoproteins - - - **Small Bodies:** ***Lysosomes*** - Contains digestive enzymes - - ***Tay-Sachs Diseases*** - Hereditary disorder - - - ***Peroxisomes*** - Detox; abundant in the liver - ***Proteasomes*** - Digests unneeded or faulty proteins - **Mitochondria:** Structure - *Sausage-shaped* with many folded membranes (cristae) and liquid matrix containing enzymes - Function - [Generate ATP] through [reactions] of cellular respiration. - - Abundant in muscles, liver, and kidney cells. - ![](media/image39.png) **Nucleus:** Structure - [Round or oval structure] surrounded by nuclear envelope with nuclear pores Contains nucleolus - Makes ribosomes that cytoplasm through nuclear pores [Store genetic material] (DNA) in genes arranged in 46 chromosomes - ***Protein Synthesis:*** Nucleus = [Transcription ] Ribosomes in the Cytoplasm = [Translation] ***Transcription***: - - Types of RNA formed: 1. 2. 3. Translation: - ***Messenger RNA*** (mRNA) - from the nucleus direct sequencing of amino acids. ***Ribosomes*** (rRNA) - Are the sites of translation ***Transfer RNA*** (tRNA) - Carry amino acids to sites of mRNA ***Somatic Cell Division:*** - ***Interphase*** - - ***Mitotic Phase*** - - ***Cytokinesis*** - Division of cytoplasm ![](media/image21.png) **Mitosis:** ***Prophase*** - - (Some chemotherapy drugs fight cancer cells by inhibiting formation of the mitotic spindle) - ***Metaphase*** - ***Anaphase*** - ***Telophase*** - - **Cell Destinies:** - - - ***Apoptosis*** - A type of cell death w/ molecular steps leading to a cell's death. ([Programmed death].) ***Necrosis*** - Death of [cells in body tissue]. Occurs when there's little blood in the tissue. **Cellular Diversity** Structure determines function, cells differ in structure related to their functions. - - - Most cells are microscopic, barely able to be seen with the naked eye. ***Sperm cell*** - Has a *[flagellum]* that it uses for locomotion. ***Red blood cell*** - [Disc shaped] RBC for a large surface for efficient ability in passing oxygen. ***Smooth muscle cells*** - Can produce effective contractions due to their shape. ***Nerve cells*** - Have long extensions that permit them to conduct nerve impulses over a long distance **Aging** - - - - - ***Progeria (Hutchinson-Gilford Progeria Syndrome)*** - Symptoms: Dry wrinkled skin, baldness, birdlike facial features. Death usually occurs by *13*. ***Werner Syndrome (Adult Progeria)*** - Most affected die before reaching *50.* LESSON 3: ***Tissue*** - Groups of cells with common embryonic origin and functions. ***Histology*** - Is the science that deals with the study of tissue. **4 BASIC TYPES:** 1. - - - - - ![](media/image10.png) **Categories:** Cell Shapes: Arrangement of cells in layers **Simple Epithelium**: 1 Layer of cells ![](media/image22.png) - ***Endothelium*** - When in lining heart, blood and lymphatic vessels. ***Mesothelium*** - When in serous membranes Squamous = single layer of flat cells. **[Simple Squamous Epithelium] -** Single layer of flat cells **[Simple Cuboidal Epithelium] -** *[Single layer of cube-shaped cells]*; round centrally located nucleus. - Function: *Secretion* & *Absorption* **[Simple Columnar Epithelium]** - Cilated ![](media/image34.png) **[Simple Columnar Epithelium] -** Noncilated **Stratified Epithelium**: More than 1 layer ![](media/image9.png) **[Stratified Squamous Epithelium]** - Apical layer is flat - - - ***Keratinized stratified squamous epithlium*** - Develops a tough [layer of keratin] in *apical layer* Ex: Skin, Sole of foot, Epidermis of palm ***Nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithlium*** - Does [not contain large amount] of *keratin* (Moistened by mucus) Ex: Pharynx, Rectum, Vulva, Vagina **[Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium]** - Rare **[Stratified Columnar Epithelium]** - Rare ![](media/image15.png) **[Transitional Epithelium]** - Variable in appearance; cells can stretch **Pseudostratified Epithelium**: Appears stratified, but is 1 layer in different heights ![](media/image40.png) **[Pseudostratified Columnar]**: **Glandular Epithelium** Main Function - Secretion - ***Gland Classification:*** ***Endocrine*** = Hormones ![](media/image18.png) ***Exocrine*** = Secrete products into ducts that empty on surface 2. - - - - - *Fibroblasts* - Present in several tissues - *Macrophages* - Formed from monocytes - *Plasma cells* - Develop from B lymphocytes - **Connective Tissue Cells** ***Mast cells*** - Near blood cells - ***Adipocytes*** - [Fat cells]/adipose cells - ***White blood cells*** (WBCs) - [Response to certain conditions], they migrate from blood into connective tissues. *Neutrophils* - Gather at sites of infection (Phagocytosis) [Lymphoctes] - Antibody production *Monocytes* - Largest WBC (Phagocytosis) *Eosinophils* - in parasitic invasion, allergic response *Basophils* - Contain histamine, hypersensitivity rxn **Classification of Connective Tissues** 1. *Mesenchyme* - Forms almost all other types of connective tissue *Mucous connective tissue* - umbilical cord of fetus, support. 2. *Loose connective tissues* - - - *Dense connective tissues* - - - *Cartilage* - - - *Bone tissue* *Liquid connective tissue* - - **Loose Connective Tissues** ***Areola Connective Tissue*** - called "*packing material*" of the body. Provide strength, elasticity, support. ***Adipose Tissue*** - Derived from fibroblasts, reduces heat loss & serves as an energy reserve. ***Reticular Connective Tissue*** - Forms [a supporting network of] organs, removes worn out blood cells in spleen and microbes in lymph nodes. **Dense Connective Tissues** ***Dense Regular Connective Tissues*** - Forms tendons, most ligaments and aponeuroses. [Provides strong attachment] between various structures. ***Dense Irregular Connective Tissues*** - Provides tensile (*[pullling]*) strength in many directions. ***Elastic Connective Tissues*** - Elastic fibers with fibroblasts, allows for stretching of various organs **Cartilage** - Dense network of collagen and elastic fibers embedded in chondroitin sulfate. **Classification of Cartilage** ***Hyaline*** - Appears clear because fibers are not easily seen. Ex: Ends of long bones, fetal skeleton ***Fibrocartilage*** - Fibers visible - Ex: Vertebral discs, knee cartilages (menisci) ***Elastic*** - Chondrocytes in threadlike elastic network Ex: Ear cartilage ***Hyaline Cartilage*** - Most [abundant] & [weakest type] of cartilage. Provides smooth surfaces for movement at joints. (Flexibility) ***Fibrocartilage*** - [Support] and [joining] structures together. (*[Strongest]*) ***Elastic Cartilage*** - Provides [strength] and [elasticity]; [maintains shape] of certain structures. **Bone: Osseous Tissue** - - - **Bone Tissue is classified as:** **[Compact]** - Basic unit is osteon or haversian sys **[Spongy]** - Lacks osteons. Consists of columns of bone called *trabeculae*. **Liquid Connective Tissue** ***Blood*** - Found within blood vessels - - - ***Lymph*** - Found within lymph vessels - - - **Body Membranes 4 Types** ***Mucous Membranes*** - Line body cavities and passageways [open to the exterior] ***Mucous Membrane*** - Lubricates food as it moves through the GIT. Secretes some enzymes for digestion. - ***Serous Membranes*** - Line [closed] cavities and [surrounds] organs located there - - - ***Serous fluid*** (Watery lubricant) - [Allows] organs to [glide easily over one another] against walls of cavities. ![](media/image1.png) ***Cutaneous Membranes*** - Skin; [Covers entire surface of body] and consists of a superficial portion called *Epidermis* and a deeper part called *Dermis*. ***Synovial Membranes*** - Line cavities of [most joints]. - - ***Synovial Fluid*** - [Lubricates] and [nourishes] the cartilage covering the bones and movable joints. (Contains macrophages that remove microbes) 3. ***Functions*** - Motion, Posture, Heat production, protection. **3 Types:** ***Skeletal Muscle*** - Pulls on bones [allowing body movements] ***Cardiac Muscle*** - Forms wall [of hear]t; [pumps blood through blood vessels]. ***Smooth Muscle*** - [Walls of hollow] organs such as stomach and bladder. 4. Functions - Conduct nerve impulses Types of cells: ***Neurons*** (Nerve cells) - [Convert stimuli into nerve impulses] and conduct them ***Neuroglia*** - Don't generate nerve impulses but [serve supportive functions.] **Tissue Repair** - - - - - - **Factors affecting tissue repair** - - - **CLINICAL CONNECTION**: *Anabolic Steroids* - Increasing proteins in muscle = [Increasing strength] - Such as: Liver cancer, kidney damage, risk of heart disease, stunted growth, wide mood swings, acne, increased irritability & aggression. - - **Atrophy** - Waste away, Gradual decline of effectiveness/use. IM Administration - Injected deep into the muscle, past the dermis and SQ. **Most Common Sites for giving IM Injections:** ***Dorsoglueteal Region*** - Upper outer quadrant [within the butt]. ***Ventrogluteal Region*** - Drug is injected into the triangle [formed by the index, middle finger, and iliac crest]. ***Deltoid*** - 2.5 to 5 cm below the acromion process ***Vastus Lateralis*** - Middle 3rd of the line joining the greater trochanter of the femur and the lateral femoral condyle of the knee. LESSON 4: