Principles of Anatomy and Physiology Textbook PDF

Principles of Anatomy and Physiology Gerard Tortora and Bryan Derrickson Sixteenth Edition Chapter 1 An Introduction to the Human Body This slide deck contains animations. Please disable animations if they...

Principles of Anatomy and Physiology Gerard Tortora and Bryan Derrickson Sixteenth Edition Chapter 1 An Introduction to the Human Body This slide deck contains animations. Please disable animations if they cause issues with your device. Copyright ©2021 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Introduction The purpose of the chapter is to: Introduce the disciplines of anatomy and physiology Discuss the organization of the human body Reveal shared properties of all living things Discuss the concept of homeostasis Copyright ©2021 John Wiley & Sons, 2 Inc. Anatomy & Physiology Defined Copyright ©2021 John Wiley & Sons, 3 Inc. Anatomy vs. Physiology (1 of 5) Anatomy is the study of structure whereas physiology is the study of how body parts function Copyright ©2021 John Wiley & Sons, 4 Inc. Anatomy vs. Physiology (2 of 5) Table 1.1 Selected Branches of Anatomy and Physiology Branch of Anatomy Study of Developmental biology The growth and development of an individual from fertilization to death. Embryology The first eight weeks of growth and (em′-brē-OL-ō-jē; embry- = development after fertilization of a embryo; -logy = study of) human egg; the earliest stage of developmental biology. Cell biology Cellular structure and functions. Histology Microscopic structure of tissues. (his-TOL-ō -jē; hist- = tissue) Gross anatomy Structures that can be examined without a microscope. Copyright ©2021 John Wiley & Sons, 5 Inc. Anatomy vs. Physiology (3 of 5) Branch of Study of Anatomy Systemic Structure of specific systems of the body such as the anatomy nervous or respiratory systems. Regional Specific regions of the body such as the head or chest. anatomy Surface Surface markings of the body to understand internal (topographical) anatomy through visualization and palpation (gentle anatomy touch). Imaging Internal body structures that can be visualized with anatomy techniques such as x-rays, MRI, CT scans, and other technologies for clinical analysis and medical intervention. Clinical The application of anatomy to the practice of medicine, anatomy dentistry, and other health-related sciences, for example, to aid in the diagnosis and treatment of disease. Pathological Structural changes (gross to microscopic) associated anatomy withCopyright disease. ©2021 John Wiley & Sons, 6 Inc. Anatomy vs. Physiology (4 of 5) Branch of Physiology Study of Molecular physiology Functions of individual molecules such as proteins and DNA. Neurophysiology Functional properties of nerve cells. (NOOR-ō-fiz-ē-ol'-ō-jē; neuro- = nerve) Endocrinology Hormones (chemical regulators in the blood) (en'-dō-kri-NOL-ō-jē; and how they control body functions. endo- = within; -crin = secretion) Cardiovascular physiology Functions of the heart and blood vessels. (kar-dē-ō-VAS-kū-lar; cardi- = heart; vascular = blood vessels) Copyright ©2021 John Wiley & Sons, 7 Inc. Anatomy vs. Physiology (5 of 5) Branch of Physiology Study of Immunology The body's defenses against disease-causing (im'-ū-NOL-ō-jē; immun- agents. = not susceptible) Respiratory physiology Functions of the air passageways and lungs. (RES-pi-ra-tōr-ē; respira- = to breathe) Renal physiology Functions of the kidneys. (RĒ-nal; ren- = kidney) Exercise physiology Changes in cell and organ functions due to muscular activity. Pathophysiology Functional changes associated with disease (Path-ō-fiz-ē-ol'-ō-jē) and aging. Copyright ©2021 John Wiley & Sons, 8 Inc.  Levels of Structural Organization and Body Systems Copyright ©2021 John Wiley & Sons, 9 Inc. Levels of Structural Organization Copyright ©2021 John Wiley & Sons, 10 Inc. Systems of the Human Body (1 of 13) The eleven systems of the human body are the integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular, lymphatic/immune, respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive Copyright ©2021 John Wiley & Sons, 11 Inc. Systems of the Human Body (2 of 13) Table 1.2 The Eleven Systems of the Human Body Integumentary System Skeletal System (chapters 6- (chapter 5) 9) Components: Skin and Components: Bones and associated structures, such as joints of the body and their hair, fingernails and toenails, associated cartilages. sweat glands, and oil glands. Functions: Protects body; helps Functions: Supports and regulate body temperature; protects body; provides surface eliminates some wastes; helps area for muscle attachments; make vitamin D; detects aids body movements; houses sensations such as touch, pain, cells that produce blood cells; warmth, and cold; stores fat and stores minerals and lipids (fats). provides insulation. Copyright ©2021 John Wiley & Sons, 12 Inc. Systems of the Human Body (3 of 13) Copyright ©2021 John Wiley & Sons, 13 Inc. Systems of the Human Body (4 of 13) Muscular System (Chapters Nervous System (Chapters 10, 11) 12-17) Components: Specifically, Components: Brain, spinal skeletal muscle tissue— cord, nerves, and special muscle usually attached to bones sense organs, such as eyes (other muscle tissues include and ears. smooth and cardiac). Functions: Participates in body Functions: Generates action movements, such as walking; potentials (nerve impulses) to maintains posture; produces regulate body activities; heat. detects changes in body's internal and external environments, interprets changes, and responds by causing muscular contractions or glandular secretions. Copyright ©2021 John Wiley & Sons, 14 Inc. Systems of the Human Body (5 of 13) Copyright ©2021 John Wiley & Sons, 15 Inc. Systems of the Human Body (6 of 13) Table 1.2 The Eleven Systems of the Human Body Endocrine System (chapter 18) Cardiovascular System (chapters 19-21) Components: Hormone-producing Components: Blood, heart, and glands (pineal gland, blood vessels. hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thymus, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, pancreas, ovaries, and testes) and hormone-producing cells in several other organs. Functions : Regulates body Functions: Heart pumps blood through activities by releasing hormones blood vessels; blood carries oxygen and (chemical messengers transported nutrients to cells and carbon dioxide in blood from endocrine gland or and wastes away from cells and helps tissue to target organ). regulate acid–base balance, temperature, and water content of body fluids; blood components help defend Copyright ©2021 John Wiley & against Sons, disease and repair damaged 16 Inc. Systems of the Human Body (7 of 13) Copyright ©2021 John Wiley & Sons, 17 Inc. Systems of the Human Body (8 of 13) Table 1.2 The Eleven Systems of the Human Body Lymphoid (Lymphatic) Respiratory System (Chapter System and Immunity 23) (Chapter 22) Components: Lymphatic Components: Lungs and air fluid (lymph plasma) and passageways such as the pharynx lymphatic vessels; spleen, (throat), larynx (voice box), thymus, lymph nodes, and trachea (windpipe), and tonsils; cells that carry out bronchial tubes leading into and immune responses (B cells, out of lungs. T cells, and others). Functions: Returns proteins Functions: Transfers oxygen from and fluid to blood; carries lipids inhaled air to blood and carbon from gastrointestinal tract to dioxide from blood to exhaled air; blood; contains sites of helps regulate acid– base balance maturation and proliferation of of body fluids; air flowing out of B cells and T cells thatCopyright protect ©2021 lungs through John Wiley & Sons, vocal cords 18 Inc. Systems of the Human Body (9 of 13) Copyright ©2021 John Wiley & Sons, 19 Inc. Systems of the Human Body (10 of 13) Digestive System (chapter Urinary System (chapter 26) 24) Components: Organs of Components: Kidneys, ureters, gastrointestinal tract, a long urinary bladder, and urethra. tube that includes the mouth, pharynx (throat), esophagus (food tube), stomach, small and large intestines, and anus; also includes accessory organs that assist in digestive processes, such as salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas. Functions: Achieves physical Functions: Produces, stores, and and chemical breakdown of food; eliminates urine; eliminates wastes absorbs nutrients; eliminates and regulates volume and chemical solid wastes. composition of blood; helps maintain the acid–base balance of 20 Copyright ©2021 John Wiley & Sons, body fluids; maintains body's Inc. Systems of the Human Body (11 of 13) Copyright ©2021 John Wiley & Sons, 21 Inc. Systems of the Human Body (12 of 13) Genital (Reproductive) Systems (Chapter 28) Components: Gonads (testes in males and ovaries in females) and associated organs (uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, clitoris, and mammary glands in females and epididymis, ductus deferens, seminal glands, prostate, and penis in males). Functions: Gonads produce gametes (sperm or oocytes) that unite to form a new organism; gonads also release hormones that regulate reproduction and other body processes; associated organs transport and store gametes; mammary glands produce milk Copyright ©2021 John Wiley & Sons, 22 Inc. Systems of the Human Body (13 of 13) Copyright ©2021 John Wiley & Sons, 23 Inc. Characteristics of the Living Human Organism Copyright ©2021 John Wiley & Sons, 24 Inc. Basic Life Processes All living things have certain characteristics that distinguish them from nonliving things Life processes in humans include metabolism, responsiveness, movement, growth, differentiation, and reproduction Copyright ©2021 John Wiley & Sons, 25 Inc. Homeostasis 1 Homeostasis is a condition of equilibrium, or balance, in the body’s internal environment Homeostasis is maintained by the body’s regulatory processes Copyright ©2021 John Wiley & Sons, 26 Inc. Body Fluids & Homeostasis The survival of our body cells is dependent on the precise regulation of the chemical composition of their surrounding fluid This fluid is known as extracellular fluid Copyright ©2021 John Wiley & Sons, 27 Inc. Control of Homeostasis Copyright ©2021 John Wiley & Sons, 28 Inc. Homeostasis 2 Homeostatic imbalances occur because of disruptions from the external or internal environments Interactions Animation Communication, Regulation, and Homeostasis Negative Feedback Control of Temperature Reg ulation Copyright ©2021 John Wiley & Sons, 29 Inc. Control of Homeostasis The basic components of a feedback loop Copyright ©2021 John Wiley & Sons, 30 Inc. Control of Homeostasis: Negative Feedback Copyright ©2021 John Wiley & Sons, 31 Inc. Control of Homeostasis: Positive Feedback Interactions Animation: Positive Feedback Control of Labor Copyright ©2021 John Wiley & Sons, 32 Inc. Homeostatic Imbalances When homeostasis is disrupted it may result in disease, disorder, or even death Factors such as your genetic make-up, the air you breathe, the food you eat, and the thoughts you think can all affect your health Copyright ©2021 John Wiley & Sons, 33 Inc. Basic Anatomical Terminology Copyright ©2021 John Wiley & Sons, 34 Inc.  Types of Anatomical Terminology Body positions Regional names Directional terms Planes and sections Body cavities Copyright ©2021 John Wiley & Sons, 35 Inc. Body Positions: The Anatomical Position Anatomical position is a standardized method of observing or imaging the body that allows precise and consistent anatomical reference Person stands erect, facing the observer, the upper extremities are places at the sides, the palms of the hands are turned forward, and the feet are flat on the floor Copyright ©2021 John Wiley & Sons, 36 Inc. Body Positions Anatomical terms to describe the reclining body are prone and supine o Prone = body lying facedown o Supine = body lying faceup Copyright ©2021 John Wiley & Sons, 37 Inc. Regional Names Regional names are names given to specific regions of the body for reference Copyright ©2021 John Wiley & Sons, 38 Inc. Directional Terms (1 of 4) Directional terms are used to precisely locate one part of the body relative to another Copyright ©2021 John Wiley & Sons, 39 Inc. Directional Terms (2 of 4) Directional term Definition Example of Use Superior (soo'-PĒR-ē-or) Toward the head, or the The heart is superior to (cephalic or cranial) upper part of a structure. the liver. Inferior (in-FĒ-rē-or) Away from the head, or The stomach is inferior to (caudal) the lower part of a the lungs. structure. Anterior (an-TĒR-ē-or) Nearer to or at the front The sternum (breastbone) (ventral)* of the body. is anterior to the heart. Posterior (pos-TĒR-ē-or) Nearer to or at the back The esophagus (food (dorsal) of the body. tube) is posterior to the trachea (windpipe). Medial (MĒ-dē-al) Nearer to the midline (an The ulna is medial to the imaginary vertical line radius. that divides the body into equal right and left sides). Copyright ©2021 John Wiley & Sons, 40 Inc. Directional Terms (3 of 4) Directional term Definition Example of Use Lateral (LAT-er-al) Farther from the midline. The lungs are lateral to the heart. Intermediate (in'-ter- Between two structures. The transverse colon is MĒ-dē-at) intermediate to the ascending and descending colons. Ipsilateral (ip-si-LAT-er- On the same side of the The gallbladder and al) body as another ascending colon are structure. ipsilateral. Contralateral (KON-tra- On the opposite side of The ascending and lat-er-al) the body from another descending colons are structure. contralateral. Proximal (PROK-si-mal) Nearer to the attachment The humerus (arm bone) of a limb to the trunk; is proximal to the radius. nearer to the origination of a structure. Copyright ©2021 John Wiley & Sons, 41 Inc. Directional Terms (4 of 4) Directional term Definition Example of Use Distal (DlS-tal) Farther from the The phalanges (finger attachment of a limb to the bones) are distal to the trunk; farther from the carpals (wrist bones). origination of a structure. Superficial (soo'- Toward or on the surface of The ribs are superficial to per-FISH-al) the body. the lungs. (external) Deep (Internal) Away from the surface of The ribs are deep to the the body. skin of the chest and back. *Note that the terms anterior and ventral mean the same thing in humans. However, in four-legged animals ventral refers to the belly side and is therefore inferior. Similarly, the terms posterior and dorsal mean the same thing in humans, but in four-legged animals dorsal refers to the back side and is therefore superior. Copyright ©2021 John Wiley & Sons, 42 Inc. Planes and Sections Planes are imaginary flat surfaces that are used to divide the body Copyright ©2021 John Wiley & Sons, 43 Inc. Practicing Planes and Sections Copyright ©2021 John Wiley & Sons, 44 Inc. Body Cavities Body cavities are spaces within the body that help protect, separate, and support internal organs Copyright ©2021 John Wiley & Sons, 45 Inc. Serous Membranes Serous membranes are thin, double- layered membranes that cover the viscera within the thoracic and abdominal cavities and also line the walls of the thorax and abdomen o Visceral layer o Parietal layer Serous membranes reduce friction Copyright ©2021 John Wiley & Sons, 46 Inc. Serous Membranes in the Thoracic Cavity (1 of 2) The pericardium and pleura cover the heart and lungs, respectively Copyright ©2021 John Wiley & Sons, 47 Inc. Serous Membranes in the Thoracic Cavity (2 of 2) Copyright ©2021 John Wiley & Sons, 48 Inc. Serous Membrane in the Abdominal Cavity The peritoneum covers many of the abdominal organs o Retroperitoneal – the classification some organs are given because they are not surrounded by the peritoneum; rather, they are posterior to it Copyright ©2021 John Wiley & Sons, 49 Inc. Abdominopelvic Regions & Quadrants The abdominal cavity can be divided into regions or quadrants to easily describe the location of organs Copyright ©2021 John Wiley & Sons, 50 Inc. Aging and Homeostasis (1 of 2) Aging is a normal process characterized by a progressive decline in the body’s ability to restore homeostasis. o Impacts all body systems o Produces structural and functional changes o Increases vulnerability to stress and disease Copyright ©2021 John Wiley & Sons, 51 Inc. Medical Imaging Medical imaging involves techniques that allow physicians to view images of the human body This allows physicians to diagnose anatomical and physiological abnormalities Copyright ©2021 John Wiley & Sons, 52 Inc. Medical Imaging Procedures: Radiography is only one of a number of imaging procedures (1 of 2) Table 1.3 Common Medical Imaging Procedures Radiography Procedure: A single barrage of x-rays passes through the body, producing an image of interior structures on x-ray-sensitive film. The resulting two- dimensional image is a radiograph (RA-dē-ō-graf’), commonly called an x-ray. Comments: Relatively inexpensive, quick, and simple to perform; usually provides sufficient information for diagnosis. X-rays do not easily pass through dense structures, so bones appear white. Hollow structures, such as the lungs, appear black. Structures of intermediate density, such as skin, fat, and muscle, appear as varying shades of gray. At low doses, x-rays are useful for examining soft tissues such as the breast (mammography) and for determining bone density (bone densitometry or DEXA scan). It is necessary to use a substance called a contrast medium to make hollow or fluid-filled structures visible (appear white) in radiographs. X-rays make structures that contain contrast media appear white. The medium may be introduced by injection, orally, or rectally, depending on the structure to be imaged. Contrast x-rays are used to image blood vessels (angiography), the urinary system (intravenous urography), and the gastrointestinal tract (barium contrast x-ray). Copyright ©2021 John Wiley & Sons, 53 Inc. Medical Imaging Procedures: Radiography (2 of 2) Copyright ©2021 John Wiley & Sons, 54 Inc. Medical Imaging Procedures: MRI and CT (1 of 3) Magnetic Resonance Imaging Computed Tomography (CT) (MRI) Procedure: The body is exposed [formerly called computerized axial to a high-energy magnetic field, tomography (C AT) scanning) which causes protons (small Procedure: In this form of computer- positive particles within atoms, assisted radiography, an x-ray beam such as hydrogen) in body fluids traces an arc at multiple angles and tissues to arrange themselves around a section of the body. The in relation to the field. Then a resulting transverse section of the pulse of radio waves "reads" these body, called a CT scan, is shown on a ion patterns, and a color-coded video monitor. image is assembled on a video monitor. The result is a two- or three- dimensional blueprint of cellular chemistry. Copyright ©2021 John Wiley & Sons, 55 Inc. Medical Imaging Procedures: MRI and CT (2 of 3) Magnetic Resonance Computed Tomography (CT) Imaging (MRI) Comments: Relatively safe Comments: Visualizes soft but cannot be used on patients tissues and organs with much with metal in their bodies. more detail than conventional Shows fine details for soft radiographs. Differing tissue tissues but not for bones. Most densities show up as various useful for differentiating shades of gray. Multiple scans can between normal and abnormal be assembled to build tissues. Used to detect tumors three"−"dimensional views of and artery-clogging fatty structures (described next). plaques; reveal brain Whole-body CT scanning typically abnormalities; measure blood targets the torso and appears to flow; and detect a variety of provide the most benefit in musculoskeletal, liver, and screening for lung cancers, kidney disorders. coronary artery disease, and Copyright ©2021 kidney John Wileycancers. & Sons, 56 Inc. Medical Imaging Procedures: MRI and CT (3 of 3) Copyright ©2021 John Wiley & Sons, 57 Inc. Medical Imaging Procedures: Ultrasound Scanning Ultrasound Scanning Procedure: High‐frequency sound waves produced by a handheld wand reflect off body tissues and are detected by the same instrument. The image, which may be still or moving, is called a sonogram (SON-ō-gram) and is shown on a video monitor. Comments: Safe, noninvasive, painless, and uses no dyes. Most commonly used to visualize the fetus during pregnancy. Also used to observe the size, location, and actions of organs and blood flow through blood vessels (Doppler ultrasound). Copyright ©2021 John Wiley & Sons, 58 Inc. Medical Imaging Procedures: C CTA and PET scan (1 of 3) Coronary (CARDIAC) Computed Positron Emission Tomography (P E Tomography Angiography (C CTA) T) SCAN Procedure: In this form of computer- Procedure: A substance that emits assisted radiography, an iodine- positrons (positively charged particles) containing contrast medium is injected is injected into the body, where it is into a vein and a beta blocker is given taken up by tissues. The collision of to decrease heart rate. Then, numerous positrons with negatively charged x-ray beams trace an arc around the electrons in body tissues produces heart and a scanner detects the x-ray gamma rays (similar to x-rays) that are beams and transmits them to a detected by gamma cameras computer, which transforms the positioned around the subject. A information into a three-dimensional computer receives signals from the image of the coronary blood vessels on gamma cameras and constructs a PET a monitor. The image produced is called scan image, displayed in color on a a CCTA scan and can be generated in video monitor. The P ET scan shows less than 20 seconds. where the injected substance is being used in the body. In the P ET scan image shown here, the black and blue colors indicate minimal activity; the red, Copyright ©2021 John Wiley & Sons, 59 Inc.orange, yellow, and white colors Medical Imaging Procedures: CCTA and PET scan (2 of 3) Coronary (CARDIAC) Computed Positron Emission Tomography Tomography Angiography (C CT (P E T) A) SCAN Comments: Used primarily to Comments: Used to study the determine if there are any physiology of body structures, such coronary artery blockages (for as metabolism in the brain or example, atherosclerotic plaque or heart. calcium) that may require an intervention such as angioplasty or stent. The C C T A scan can be rotated, enlarged, and moved at any angle. The procedure can take thousands of images of the heart within the time of a single heartbeat, so it provides a great amount of detail about the heart's structure and function. Copyright ©2021 John Wiley & Sons, 60 Inc. Medical Imaging Procedures: CCTA and PET scan (3 of 3) Copyright ©2021 John Wiley & Sons, 61 Inc. Medical Imaging Procedures: Endoscopy Endoscopy Procedure: Endoscopy involves the visual examination of the inside of body organs or cavities using a lighted instrument with lenses called an endoscope. The image is viewed through an eyepiece on the endoscope or projected onto a monitor. Comments: Examples include colonoscopy (used to examine the interior of the colon, which is part of the large intestine), laparoscopy (used to examine the organs within the abdominopelvic cavity), and arthroscopy (used to examine the interior of a joint, usually the knee). Copyright ©2021 John Wiley & Sons, 62 Inc. Medical Imaging Procedures: Radionuclide Scanning (1 of 2) Radionuclide Scanning Procedure: A radionuclide (radioactive substance) is introduced intravenously into the body and carried by the blood to the tissue to be imaged. Gamma rays emitted by the radionuclide are detected by a gamma camera outside the subject, and the data are fed into a computer. The computer constructs a radionuclide image and displays it in color on a video monitor. Areas of intense color take up a lot of the radionuclide and represent high tissue activity; areas of less intense color take up smaller amounts of the radionuclide and represent low tissue activity. Single-photon-emission computed tomography (SPECT) scanning is a specialized type of radionuclide scanning that is especially useful for studying the brain, heart, lungs, and liver. Comments: Used to study activity of a tissue or organ, such as searching for malignant tumors in body tissue or scars that may interfere with heart muscle activity. Copyright ©2021 John Wiley & Sons, 63 Inc. Medical Imaging Procedures: Radionuclide Scanning (2 of 2) Copyright ©2021 John Wiley & Sons, 64 Inc. Aging and Homeostasis (2 of 2) Aging is a normal process characterized by a progressive decline in the body’s ability to restore homeostasis Copyright ©2021 John Wiley & Sons, 65 Inc. Copyright Copyright © 2021 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted in Section 117 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the express written permission of the copyright owner is unlawful. Request for further information should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. The purchaser may make back-up copies for his/her own use only and not for distribution or resale. The Publisher assumes no responsibility for errors, omissions, or damages caused by the use of these programs or from the use of the information contained herein. Copyright ©2021 John Wiley & Sons, 66 Inc.