Understanding Movement Control Lecture Notes PDF

Understanding Movement Control EXE 120 Study Unit 2 Lecture 1 Scope  2.1 Reaction time  2.2 Attention  2.3 Arousal  2.4 Sensory contributions  2.5 Memory EXE159_Chptr7_Qrt4_'13 2  Chapter Objectives  Understand factors associated w...

Understanding Movement Control EXE 120 Study Unit 2 Lecture 1 Scope  2.1 Reaction time  2.2 Attention  2.3 Arousal  2.4 Sensory contributions  2.5 Memory EXE159_Chptr7_Qrt4_'13 2  Chapter Objectives  Understand factors associated with movement preparation.  Describe the factors that influence reaction time  Compare theories of attention and illustrate how arousal levels affect performance.  Explain sensory contributions to movement and balance.  Differentiate between short-term, long-term, and working memory. 3  LeBron James Introduction  Highlights some of the most NB considerations when preparing any motor response-underlying processes that occur. Gianluigi Donnarumma Jonty Rhodes 4  Introduction Important considerations when preparing any motor response:  Reaction time  Attention  Arousal  Sensory information 5 SU 2.1: Reaction Time  Speed is NB when preparing a motor response. E.g. swimming/track speed at which athlete reacts to starting signal. SU 2.1: Response time (Speed)  Reaction time (RT) ◦ Time between the presentation of a stimulus and the initiation of a motor response ◦ Indicates the speed at which one makes a decision ◦ Does not indicate if decision was correct or appropriate.  Movement time (observable) ◦ Time from the initiation of the movement until it has been completed  Response time ◦ Reaction time + Movement time Figure 3.1: Response time = RT +MT RT begins immediately after the sound of the starter’s gun & continues until the sprinter initiates a movement, at which time MT begins. Response time includes reaction time and extends to the conclusion of the movement. SU 2.1: Reaction time  NB to understand the factors that affect RT and how to use them effectively. 1. Number of stimulus-response alternatives 2. Psychological refractory period 3. Stimulus-response compatibility. SU 2.1: Stimulus–Response Alternatives  Simplest decisions in response to a stimulus require only one motor response. ◦ Simple reaction time (e.g., stop sign= one stimulus and one response=relatively short RT)  More complex when faced with a choice of more than one stimulus- response options. ◦ Choice reaction time (e.g., stop light- option of three stimulus- response options). SU 2.1: Stimulus–Response Alternatives  Hick’s law (paper published in 1952) ◦ Relationship between the number of movement choices and the time needed to prepare a response. ◦ Hick’s law- Reaction time increases at a constant rate with number of stimulus responses ◦ The higher the degree of uncertainty in a given situation, the longer the time needed to decide which response to make.  Predicted relationship between number of stimulus-response choices and RT 600 500 Reaction Time (msec) 400 300 200 100 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Number of Response Choices Notice that the situation of the sprinter with 1 response his reaction time is approximately 190ms but the situation faced by the goal keeper can be 2-3 times that amount. This increase in RT has NB implications when the movement situation demands a quick and accurate response. SU 2.1: Stimulus–Response Alternatives  Practical application of Hick’s law: ◦ If you want to delay opponents give them more to choose from e.g. more than one defender. ◦ If you want to shorten your own reaction time decrease the number of choices. ◦ Applied in sport, web design, engineering design... SU 2.1: Stimulus–Response Alternatives  Can implement strategies to reduce uncertainty and thereby decrease RT.  Predicting a stimulus = event anticipation or  When it might occur= temporal anticipation  The more predictable a stimulus the quicker and more accurate the response. 14 SU 2.1: Stimulus–Response Alternatives  Prediction is dependent on the performers ability to detect clues or precues -Clues in the environment that if detected can assist a learner in anticipating.  E.g. a basketball player may first look at the opponent he is about to pass to etc.  This reduces the number of options that require a response. 15 SU 2.1: Stimulus–Response Alternatives  If anticipation is done incorrectly can be more detrimental than no anticipation at all. EXE159_Chptr7_Qrt4_'13 16 SU 2.1: Stimulus–Response Alternatives Ruler test  Simple reaction time: one ruler – Temporal anticipation  Choice reaction time: two rulers ◦ Temporal anticipation ◦ Event anticipation  Try This: Ruler Test 1. To examine the difference between simple reaction time and choice reaction time, break up into pairs. Each pair of students has two rulers. (Yard or meter sticks could also be used.) a. Simple reaction time: One student (the experimenter) begins by holding a ruler vertically. The other student (the participant) places a thumb and forefinger at the bottom end of the ruler (at 0). The participant should leave approximately 1 inch (2.5 cm) of space between the thumb and the ruler and the finger and the ruler. The experimenter drops the ruler without warning, and the participant grasps it as quickly as possible (see figure 2.2 in the print book). Record the number at the top of the position the participant grasps the ruler in the chart. Perform the experiment 10 times, then switch roles.  Try This: Ruler Test 1. To examine the difference between simple reaction time and choice reaction time, break up into pairs. Each pair of students has two rulers. (Yard or meter sticks could also be used.) b. Choice reaction time: The experimenter holds two rulers vertically, and the participant positions thumbs and forefingers at the end of each ruler (at 0). The experimenter randomly releases one of the rulers without warning. The participant grasps the ruler as quickly as possible. The participant may not grasp with both hands. If both hands grasp the rulers at the same time, the trial must be aborted. Record the value at the top of the position where the participant grasps the ruler into the chart, then switch roles. Ruler Test Data Chart SU 2.1: Action plan profiles  Another way for individuals to reduce uncertainty in choice RT scenarios= using action plan profiles (APP).  APP= condition–action links (if this condition happens, then I do this action) developed due to increased knowledge and experience that serve as preplanned responses to specific situations in a choice RT scenario.  Reduces a choice RT to a simple RT scenario= decreases time needed to prepare the motor response.  The term current event profiles refers to updated plans based on opponent diagnosis. EXE120 21 Understanding Movement Control EXE 120 Study Unit 2 Lecture 2  SU 2.1: Psychological Refractory Period (PRP)  Way stimuli are presented can also affect RT.  Often present two stimuli requiring a response at separate times.  SU 2.1: Psychological Refractory Period (PRP)  BUT when two stimuli are presented in quick succession= delay occurs.  Processing a response to the first stimulus delays the ability to process a response to the second stimulus.  Delay known as the PRP and increase RT to second stimulus.  Sport examples: video links on ClickUP SU 2.1: Psychological Refractory Period (PRP)  Tap the table with your left hand when you see the light bulb, tap the table with your right hand when you hear the sound. EXE120 4 SU 2.1: Psychological Refractory Period (PRP)  Tap the table with your left hand when you see the light bulb, tap the table with your right hand when you hear the sound. GET READY EXE120 5 SU 2.1: Psychological Refractory Period (PRP) EXE120 6 SU 2.1: Psychological Refractory Period (PRP) GET READY EXE120 7 SU 2.1: Psychological Refractory Period (PRP) EXE120 8 SU 2.1: Psychological Refractory Period (PRP) GET READY EXE120 9 SU 2.1: Psychological Refractory Period (PRP) EXE120 10 SU 2.1: Psychological Refractory Period (PRP) GET READY EXE120 11 SU 2.1: Psychological Refractory Period (PRP) EXE120 12 Psychological Refractory Period (PRP) PRP: Delay in responding to a 2nd stimulus in a situation where 2 stimuli, each of which requires a different response, are presented in succession within a short period of time  Psychological Refractory Period (PRP) Compounded with age- PRP –result from a narrowing of attention to a single channel in which only one stimulus can be processed at a time-if time given between stimuli is not sufficient an attentional bottleneck occurs. Psychological Refractory Period (PRP) To execute a successful: 1. Fake must be realistic 2. Timing is critical Carlos Alcaraz example EXE120 15 Psychological Refractory Period (PRP) The performer pretends to The PRP process is used by move one way, your opponent performers to dummy or fake perceives these signals and their opponents. decides to block your move. Your opponent cannot immediately respond to your Meanwhile the performer change in movement due to starts to move the other way. the single channel hypothesis. If they try to respond it will be slower due to the PRP SU 2.1 Stimulus Response Compatibility  The amount of association between a stimulus and response can also affect RT.  Association = Stimulus Response Compatibility  Greater the amount of association the shorter the RT even in a choice RT scenario.  SU 2.1 Stimulus Response Compatibility  The extent to which a stimulus and its required response are naturally related  Low SR compatibility = increased response time  High SR compatibility = decreased response time  Lo SR: showing a forehand stroke, but does forehand drop shot  Hi SR: presentation of a red light, the foot puts on the brake- Experience drivers with traffic light response. EXE120 18 SU 2.1 Stimulus Response Compatibility The disadvantages of SR incompatibility overcome with PRACTICE. The greater the amount of practice, the Amount of shorter the choice RT practice Extreme amounts of practice, high level performers can become almost automatic Nature of When the same SR combinations are practice practiced, choice RT becomes faster EXE120 19 SU 2.1 Stimulus Response Compatibility  1. These two images illustrate various levels of stimulus–response compatibility. Describe the stimulus–response compatibility for each, including the stimulus and response and whether they are compatible.  a. Stovetop b. Group exercise class SU 2.1 Stimulus Response Compatibility  2. Provide another example that illustrates low stimulus–response compatibility and one that illustrates high stimulus–response compatibility. Summary- factors which affect RT  NUMBER OF STIMULUS-RESPONSE ALTERNATIVES  PRP  STIMULUS- RESPONSE compatibility  AGE – the older we get, the slower our reaction times  GENDER – males have quicker reaction times than females – but reaction times reduce less with age for females  Increase in STIMULUS INTENSITY will improve reaction time – a louder bang will initiate the go more quickly than a less loud bang  TALL PEOPLE will have slower reactions than short people because of the greater distance the information has to travel from the performer’s brain to the active muscles  AROUSAL LEVELS affect reaction times which are best when the performer is alert but not over aroused  SENSORY SYSTEM receiving the stimulusEXE120 22 SU 2.2: Attention Attention NB for effective decision making and motor performance. Look at 3 major characteristics of attention: *Capacity *Selectivity and *Focus. SU 2.2: Attentional capacity Capacity: attentional capacity is not limitless Propose that people have a central limited capacity when performing simultaneous activities. 1.Extent of the limitations Three theories which and differ on: 2. Location of the limits. SU 2.2: Theories of Attentional Capacity  Single-channel filter theories ◦ Tasks are accomplished in serial order ◦ Bottleneck occurs at some point in information processing. ◦ The system can process only one task at a time SU 2.2: Theories of Attentional Capacity  Central-resource capacity theory ◦ Kahneman (1973) ◦ More flexible – information processing capacity expand on basis of conditions related to the individual, task & situation. ◦ Attention requires cognitive effort ◦ No bottleneck but a more general pool of effort that can be strategically allocated to the activities. SU 2.2: Theories of Attentional Capacity  Central-resource capacity theory ◦ Individual evaluates amount of attention necessary to perform tasks & determines if can be done simultaneously. ◦ At some point however one or more of the tasks will be adversely affected. Flexible attention capacity  SU 2.2: Theories of Attentional Capacity  Multiple-resource theories ◦ Several attention mechanisms, each with limited capacity ◦ If tasks require a common mechanism, they will be difficult to perform simultaneously ◦ Those based on separate mechanisms can be done simultaneously.  SU 2.2: Theories of Attentional Capacity  Multiple-resource theories ◦ Extension of the central-resource capacity theory. ◦ Similar to central-resource theory but each mechanism has its own capacity limitations. ◦ When capacity is exceeded, INTERFERENCE occurs-cannot do both without one being compromised. 5+7+5= 10+7=17  SU 2.2: Theories of Attentional Capacity *Attentional capacity is critical to understanding the importance Young basketball player uses a lot of attentional capacity just to of automaticity of dribble the ball. Even just raising his head will cause him to loose control of the ball (interference) performance. *As some skills become automatized, the individual can attend to other aspects of the Skilled basketball player can environment. dribble running down the court whilst looking at the other players and strategizing. SU 2.2: Theories of Attentional Capacity How do these theories make you rethink how to teach your future students, patients, clients, or athletes? Understanding Movement Control EXE 120 Study Unit 2 Lecture 3  SU 2.2: Selective attention  In any performance context- lots of info is available to the performer.  Info can be either relevant or irrelevant.  E.g. typist in office setup-what info is available to her?  SU 2.2: Selective attention  Words on computer monitor  Ringing phone,  Colleagues talking,  To perform her task well = she needs to be able to attend to the relevant information  e.g. words whilst filtering out the irrelevant e.g. ringing phone.  SU 2.2: Selective attention  This ability is known as selective attention.  Selective attention- ability to attend to or focus on one specific item in the midst of countless stimuli.  SU 2.2: Selective attention  The cocktail party effect- ability to focus one's auditory attention on a particular stimulus while filtering out a range of other stimuli  e.g. partygoer can focus on a single conversation in a noisy room (cocktail party phenomenon) https://edtech.engineering.utoronto.ca/object/cocktail-party-effect SU 2.2: Focus of Attention  Attention can be focused along 2 dimensions: 1. Direction: the location of the focus  Internal (within the person)  External (in the environment) 2. Width: the amount or expanse of information attended to by the individual  Narrow (attending to one or two specific cues)  Broad (attending to the larger /entire visual field)  SU 2.2: Attentional Styles  When combined four attentional styles emerge 1. Internal broad 2. Internal narrow 3. External broad 4. External narrow  SU 2.2: Attentional focus  Player could attend to only one of the attentional foci -more likely to shift throughout performance.  This shift in attentional focus is especially NB in team sport/ open environments.  A single attentional focus may prevent noticing relevant info.  SU 2.2: Attentional focus  Attentional focus =also refers to how a person directs attention to the skill being performed.  Internal focus= occurs when person attends to his body movements  External focus=occurs when he attends to the effects of his movements.  E.g. vertical jump e.g free throw in basketball Internal=focus on Internal=focus on making sure wrist flexes finger tips when releasing the ball External=focus on External=focus on the rungs making sure the ball rotates backwards when he releases it.  SU 2.2: Attentional focus  Evidence= external focus is better for motor learning and performance than internal focus of attention.  Why? Explained by the Constrained action hypothesis. ◦ Internal focus of attention constrains the motor system which prevents the motor programme from running off automatically. ◦ External focus facilitates automaticity.  SU 2.2: Attentional focus  Recently the Self-invoking trigger hypothesis suggests that: ◦ Internal focus triggers people to engage in self-evaluation and self-regulatory processes to try gain control over their thoughts/feelings. ◦ If the addition of these processes extends the attentional capacity, automatic control of the motor program can be disrupted = decline in motor performance. What do you think?  What kind of attentional focus shifts might occur for the following skills? 1. Rock climbing 2. Driving on a busy highway 3. Pitching a baseball 4. Assessing an injured athlete 5. Mountain biking SU 2.2: Attention summary Capacity: attentional capacity is not limitless Selectivity: attention is selected either intentionally or incidentally Focus: attention is wide or narrow and internal or external  SU 2.3: Arousal vs. Anxiety  Arousal: a general physiological and psychological activation, varying on a continuum from deep sleep to intense excitement  Anxiety: a negative emotional state in which feelings of nervousness, worry, and apprehension are associated with activation or arousal of the body  Therefore one who is anxious is also aroused but one who is aroused is not necessarily anxious. SU 2.3: Inverted-U Hypothesis  Performance tends to increase as arousal increases but only up to a certain point.  Once arousal surpasses the individual's optimal arousal level, performance tends to drop off.  SU 2.3: Arousal vs. Anxiety  Optimal arousal level depends on ◦ Person ◦ Task being performed,  Some perform very well under high arousal conditions.  Others especially those with trait anxiety (a predisposition for anxiety in threatening situations) perform better under low arousal conditions.  SU 2.3: Arousal vs. Anxiety  Ones level of anxiety at a single point in time =STATE ANXIETY.  Can happen that relatively calm individual (trait anxiety is low) may experience high anxiety in certain circumstances (state anxiety)  e.g.. during a final exam.  SU 2.3: Arousal vs. Anxiety  Complexity of the task also affects optimal arousal level.  Task which are highly complex (many components) =performed better under low arousal conditions (e.g. a chess game).  Tasks which are low in complexity = performed better under high arousal conditions (e.g. bench press) SU 2.3: Arousal and performance  Relationship between performance and arousal are explained by the Cue Utilization Hypothesis.  In any performance context there are numerous stimuli in the environment (relevant and irrelevant).  Under optimal arousal levels a person can selectively attend to the relevant stimuli whilst ignoring the irrelevant ones. SU 2.3: Arousal and performance  Under low arousal conditions- attention broadens focusing on both relevant and irrelevant stimuli= response delays and decrease in performance.  Under high arousal conditions, attention becomes overly narrowed= not focusing on all relevant stimuli. SU 2.3: Arousal and performance  Relationship between performance and arousal are explained by the Cue Utilization Hypothesis. High arousal conditions Low arousal conditions Understanding Movement Control EXE 120 Study Unit 2 Lecture 4 SU 2.4 Sensory Contributions:  Sensory information influences movement  Often move based on what we see.  Sensory info obtained from visual, somatosensory (touch), auditory and vestibular (balance and position in space) system.  SU 2.4 Sensory Contributions: Exteroception  Exteroception provides information about the external environment related to the body ◦ Vision ◦ Audition SU 2.4 Sensory Contributions: Exteroception-Vision Predominant source-≈70% of sensory receptors residing in the eyes. Provides info about the environment with respect to the position of the head. To perceive an image visually light enters the eye and passes to light-sensitive membrane (retina) forming an image.  SU 2.4 Sensory Contributions: Exteroception-Vision  Image then converted into nerve signals by light-sensitive cells (photoreceptors)  Two types of photoreceptors:  Rods &  Cones  SU 2.4 Sensory Contributions: Exteroception-Vision RODS CONES More numerous than cones Fewer and denser than rods Enhance acute vision (visual Provide peripheral vision acuity) Detect movement Operate best in bright lighting Perceive shades of grey (night Perceive colour vision)  SU 2.4 Sensory Contributions: Exteroception-Vision  After image is converted into nerve signals, nerve signals transmitted from eye through optic tract to visual cortex of brain  Nerve signals sent to opposite sides of the brain-crossing the optic chasm.  Brain interprets the nerve signals  SU 2.4 Sensory Contributions: Exteroception-Vision *Light enters the eye through the pupil and moves to the retina, where visual image is formed. *Photoreceptors covert the image into nerve signals, which are sent through the optic nerve and cross over the optic chiasm to the visual cortex to be interpreted.  Brain interprets the nerve signals SU 2.4 Sensory Contributions: Exteroception-Vision  VISUAL ACUITY – sharpness of vision  Allows us to see images e.g. faces and words on a page.  Two types: ◦ Static and ◦ Dynamic  SU 2.4 Sensory Contributions: Exteroception-Vision  VISUAL ACUITY:  Static: clearly see and image that is stationary- assessed using the Snellen eye(1862) chart (to measure visual acuity- how well you can see at various distances-11 lines).  SU 2.4 Sensory Contributions: Exteroception-Vision  VISUAL ACUITY:  The chart is positioned 6 meters away.  20/20 vision-indicates the clarity and sharpness of your vision measured at a distance of 20 feet.  If you have ◦ 20/20 vision, you can see clearly at 20 feet (6m) ◦ 20/40 vision- you need to be as close as 20 feet (3m) to see what a person with normal vision can see at 40 feet (9m). ◦ Largest letter on an eye chart - represents an acuity of 20/200 which is associated with the term "legally blind." SU 2.4 Sensory Contributions: Exteroception-Vision  Dynamic: distinguish objects that are moving (develops at later age than static visual acuity- reaching adult levels at 15 yrs- some as late as 19-24 years)  NB for athletes tracking an object /opponent. SU 2.4 Sensory Contributions: Exteroception-Vision  Girls have poorer static & dynamic visual acuity than boys=reduced participation in some sport.  Dynamic visual acuity test- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Afgh Wx3IInE SU 2.4 Sensory Contributions: Exteroception-Vision  file:///C:/Users/u02444364/Downloads/Wimshurstcardinale2 019.pdf  The three vision training methods  Supports suggestions that visual skills can improve through training.  Improvements in visual skills might influence ‘on-field’ improvements in performance. SU 2.4 Sensory Contributions: Exteroception-Audition / hearing  Auditory info is often overlooked as NB factor in skillful movement but its NB for ◦ Learning and movement patterns & ◦ Performing skillfully SU 2.4 Sensory Contributions: Exteroception-Audition / hearing  Use following auditory methods for teaching a motor skill: ◦ Verbal cues / instructions ◦ Auditory signals during activity to react quickly / frame of reference ◦ Rhythm devices e.g metronome, clapping. SU 2.4 Sensory Contributions: Proprioception  Proprioception provides information about the state of the body itself, including the sense of movement and the relationship of body parts to one another. Supported by: ◦ Vestibular apparatus We know where our ◦ Joint receptors hands, limbs and feet are with respect to one ◦ Cutaneous receptors another without looking ◦ Muscle spindles at them because of ◦ Golgi tendon organs proprioception SU 2.4 Sensory Contributions: Proprioception-Vestibular apparatus  Found in the inner ear- ◦ gives proprioceptive info by detecting head motion ◦ orientation of the head wrt gravity e.g. head tilt. ◦ NB for static & dynamic balance  Semi-circular canals= provide info on the direction and rate of spin.  Help detect the direction and rotation of motion.  SU 2.4 Sensory Contributions: Other proprioceptive structures Cutaneous Golgi tendon Joint receptors Muscle spindles receptors organs Located in Located in the Embedded in Located in the joint capsules skin the muscles junction of Fire when Signal eg. bellies the muscle joint is in Temp, pain Provide info and tendon extreme and pressure about motion Responds to position NB for our and joint the intensity Protective touch position of function More active m.contraction when muscle Most active is stretched when muscle contracts SU 2.4 Sensory Contributions: Proprioception Poor proprioception linked to clumsiness in children and adolescents. NB for skilful performance Enables fluid movements Limited active experiences delays proprioceptive development & hinder the ability to learn more complex motor skills Therefore, children must experience a wide variety of activities. SU 2.5: Memory The ability to recall things, which allows us to benefit from experience- Short term & Long term memory Short term, working and Long term memory SU 2.5: Memory  Short-term memory (older models on memory) ◦ Stored for only 20-30 seconds unless rehearsed ◦ Use maintenance rehearsal -the act of repeating information out loud in order to memorise it (ex: telephone numbers) ◦ Chunking is the process of grouping items to make them easier to remember (eg.: we ‘chunk’ numbers into groups like 719-3100 instead of 7193100) ◦ Short-term memory is stored in the cortex SU 2.5: Memory  Baddeley’s model proposes model which includes working memory and long-term memory.  Working memory –active role of the control process. Function include: ◦ Temporarily stores recently presented material ◦ Retrieves information from long-term storage to influence current problem solving, decision making, and movement production.  Cognitive workspace. SU 2.5: Memory  Working memory ◦ duration limited to 20s & ◦ capacity to 7±2 items-depends on content and person) Memory improves throughout childhood and is associated with emotional intelligence Working (regulating emotions, memory performing under pressure, utilizing positive coping strategies and being satisfied with performance). EXE120 25 SU 2.5: Memory  Long-term memory ◦ Contains past events and general knowledge ◦ Info that is practiced and used often finds its way into long term memory. ◦ Wrt movement knowledge includes the ability to perform physical skills e.g. swimming, cycling etc ◦ Capacity and duration is unlimited ◦ Relatively permanent  SU 2.5: Memory  Different types of memories= stored across different, interconnected brain regions.  Explicit memories – which are about events that happened to you (episodic), as well as general facts and information (semantic): ◦ the hippocampus, ◦ the neocortex and ◦ the amygdala.  Implicit memories e.g. motor memories: ◦ basal ganglia and ◦ cerebellum.  Short-term working memory ◦ the prefrontal cortex. EXE120 27 https://qbi.uq.edu.au/brain-basics/memory/where-are-memories-stored  The process by which sensory input is eventually SU 2.5: Memory stored in long-term memory. Summary  There are many factors involved in understanding movement control including reaction time, attention, arousal, sensory contributions, and memory.  Attention is critical for effective decision making and motor performance, has limited capacity & is selective Summary  Arousal ◦ Optimal Effect on ◦ Low performance ◦ High EXE120 30 Summary  Exteroception (vision and audition) & proprioception (vestibular apparatus, joint receptors, muscle spindles, Golgi tendon organs, and cutaneous receptors) provide sensory contributions necessary for movement and balance.  In order to store information into long-term memory, it must be selected from the sensory register, temporarily stored in short-term memory, and rehearsed.