Motor Learning and Control: Key Facts PDF

Introduction to Motor Learning and Control and Classification of Skills ----------------------------------------------------------------------- ### Key Talking Points - The design and implementation of effective learning experiences requires the creation of an informed action plan grounded i...

Introduction to Motor Learning and Control and Classification of Skills ----------------------------------------------------------------------- ### Key Talking Points - The design and implementation of effective learning experiences requires the creation of an informed action plan grounded in an understanding of the learning process, the current learning situation and the potential instructional strategies available from which to draw. - The field of *motor learning* examines the processes and variables that influence the acquisition and refinement of motor skills; the field of *motor control* focuses on the neural, physical, and behavioral aspects that underlie movement. - Learning and performance are not synonymous. Learning is a relatively permanent change in the capability to execute a motor skill as a result of practice or experience, whereas performance is simply the act of executing a skill. - Motor skills are categorized by several classification systems: - - - - - All teaching strategies will not be equally effective for all learners, owing to individual differences. - Each of us possesses different levels of abilities, which are genetically determined traits that enhance or limit our potential to become skilled at a particular task. Stages of Learning ------------------ ### Key Talking Points - According to Fitts and Posner, learners pass through three distinct stages: 1. 2. 3. - Gentile's two-stage model emphasizes the goal of the learner and the influence of task and environmental characteristics on that goal. - - - To infer learning, the practitioner can assess numerous performance changes, including changes in coordination and control, muscle activity, energy expenditure, consistency, attentional focus, knowledge and memory, error detection and correction, and self-confidence. - Progress can also be assessed through performance curves, retention tests, and transfer tests. - - - A performance plateau is a period of time during the learning process in which no overt changes in performance occur. Plateaus often represent transitional periods in the learning process when the integration of task components (and perhaps strategy) is being resolved; they are not necessarily indicative of a cessation in the learning process. Information processing and Reaction Time ---------------------------------------- ### Key Talking Points - The process by which meaning is attached to sensory information is known as ***perception** (*Stimulus Identification stage*)*. - During the ***response selection*** phase, a decision is made on what to do with the information from the previous stage - Once the decision is reached, ***response programming*** occurs. In this stage the motor programme is retrieved from memory and it contains all the information required to begin the movement. - A time lag occurs between the moment when a stimulus is presented and when a response is initiated. This interval of time is known as ***reaction time*** and is indicative of the time needed to prepare a response before it can be executed. - Reaction time is not constant; it depends on the processing demands imposed by a given situation. - Numerous variables influence the time needed to prepare a response, including the number of response choices available, temporal and/or event anticipation, the psychological refractory period, stimulus--response compatibility, and amount of practice. - When response time delays are noted, practitioners must make a distinction between moving slowly and initiating movement slowly in order to determine which course of action to take for their correction. [Questions to consider:] 1. Explain the degrees of freedom problem. ### **In neuroscience and motor control, the degrees of freedom problem or motor equivalence problem states that there are multiple ways for humans or animals to perform a movement in order to achieve the same goal.** Skill Presentation: Instructions and Demonstration -------------------------------------------------- ### Key Talking Points - Practitioners can choose either a Hands-on or Hands-off approach to instruction - - - When giving instructions: - - - - - - Instructions focusing learners' conscious attention on the effects of their movement rather than on specific body movements have been shown to be superior for learning. - Verbal cues are used to focus learners' attention or prompt a movement or movement sequence and should be concise, accurate, limited in number, and used repeatedly throughout the learning process. - When planning a demonstration, the practitioner should consider its content, the characteristics of the model performing the demonstration, how the demonstration will be organised, and its distribution and frequency. - When providing an initial demonstration, the practitioner or model should perform the whole skill in real time to give learners an idea of the movement. - Learners benefit from demonstrations that focus on a new pattern of coordination. - The use of a learning model encourages movement exploration and active involvement in the learning process. - For an effective demonstration, all learners should have a good viewing angle and should be focused on the key elements being demonstrated. - The complexity of the skill and the extent to which the learner understands the information will dictate when and how often a demonstration should be provided. - Manual guidance may be used to convey skill requirements and for safety purposes, but it should be withdrawn as soon as possible. Diagnosing Errors/Feedback -------------------------- ### Key Talking Points - When diagnosing errors, practitioners tend to focus on the outcome of the movement and provide feedback only about technical aspects of the skill that can be observed, but many errors can be attributed to deficits in motor learning. - When conducting an observation, the practitioner should identify the purpose and key elements of the skill, determine the optimal viewing perspective, decide how many trials to observe prior to making a judgment regarding performance quality, and choose whether to record. - Errors can occur as a result of organismic, task, or environmental constraints. - Comprehension errors occur when a learner does not understand the requirements of the skill or what is expected. - Errors in selection can result from problems in assessing the environment for task-relevant cues, faulty decision making, or forgetting. - Whether an error should be corrected depends on the learner's capability to make the correction, the amount of time available, and the level of motivation. Correcting Errors ----------------- ### Key Talking Points - "Feedback" is a general term used to describe the information a learner receives about the performance of a movement or skill. - Feedback can be intrinsic (coming from one's own sensory system) or augmented (supplied from an external source). - Knowledge of results provides information regarding the outcome of a response and is concerned with the success of the intended action with respect to its goal. - Knowledge of performance provides information regarding the specific characteristics of the performance that led to the outcome. - Augmented feedback serves to provide information for error correction, motivate, and reinforce. - Sources of augmented feedback include auditory feedback, visual displays, video replay, equipment and drills, and biofeedback. - In the sandwich approach, the practitioner first gives the learner information to reinforce correct performance, then provides information regarding error correction, and finally offers encouragement to motivate the learner to incorporate the recommendations. - The provision of both descriptive and prescriptive information can assist learners in developing associations between errors and corrections. - Learners need a high frequency of feedback in the initial stage of learning. However, unless that frequency is reduced as the learner becomes more proficient, the learner may develop an overdependence on augmented feedback. - To reduce feedback frequency, the practitioner can use faded, bandwidth, summary, average, and learner-regulated feedback. - Learners need time to process intrinsic feedback and formulate a new movement plan for the next attempt. - Prompting learners to estimate their own performance errors before providing them with augmented feedback results in superior learning. - The purposeful manipulation of key task and/or practice variables should be considered when correcting performance errors. Practice Schedules ------------------ ### Key Talking Points - When learners are first introduced to a new motor skill, they should engage in constant practice, practicing only a single variation of the task. Once they have acquired the basic movement pattern, they should engage in variable practice strategies, rehearsing multiple variations of the task. - For open skills and closed skills that involve inter-trial variability, the practitioner should systematically introduce variations in both regulatory and non-regulatory conditions that could be present in an applied setting. For closed skills that do not involve inter-trial variability, learners should be exposed to a variety of potential non-regulatory conditions, while the regulatory conditions of the skill should remain constant. - Increasing contextual interference---the interference that results from switching from one skill to another or changing the context in which a task is practiced from trial to trial---has been shown to facilitate learning. - Low contextual interference occurs during blocked practice, when the learner practices one skill or skill variation repeatedly before attempting another skill or skill variation. High contextual interference results when multiple tasks or task variations are performed in random order. - Initial learning should be organised through blocked practice, and random practice should follow once learners have acquired some degree of proficiency. - Repeated-blocked practice combines the advantages of blocked and random practice. - Learning is enhanced when practice sessions are shorter and more frequent. - Distributed practice is recommended for novel and complex skills, continuous tasks, tasks that inherently have high-energy requirements, and tasks whose performance involves some degree of risk. Massed practice can be effective for learners who have acquired basic skills, are highly motivated, are in good physical condition, and have long attention spans. - **Self-controlled practice, where** learners are given the opportunity to choose some characteristics of the practice situation, has been shown to facilitate learning - To maximise time on task, the practitioner should carefully consider rest intervals, equipment substitutions, and drill design. ###