Aggression and Dominance.pdf

Aggression and Dominance 18 January 2024 08:58 Main Ideas Notes What is aggression? Aggression: behaviour intended to harm someone who is motivated to avoid the harm ○ The are many ways to harm someone ▪ Physical ▪ Psychological ▪ Social ▪ Financial Types of aggression Reactive aggression ○ Aggressi...

Aggression and Dominance 18 January 2024 08:58 Main Ideas Notes What is aggression? Aggression: behaviour intended to harm someone who is motivated to avoid the harm ○ The are many ways to harm someone ▪ Physical ▪ Psychological ▪ Social ▪ Financial Types of aggression Reactive aggression ○ Aggressive behavioural response to actual or perceived provocation ○ Characterised by anger and impulsivity ○ Also referred to as impulsive aggression Proactive aggression ○ No direct provocation ○ Goal-oriented behaviour often aimed at obtaining a valued resource ○ Characterised by callous, unemotional traits Is aggression adaptive or maladaptive? Aggression evolved in the context of competition over valued resources (e.g., food, shelter, mates) The establishment of social hierarchy, suggesting that it often serves an adaptive function (Daly & Wilson, 1988) But in modern societies, aggression is often maladaptive ○ It is a public health problem with negative effects on victims, perpetrators and witnesses What is dominance? Different definitions used in different fields Some definitions: ○ Tendency to behave in assertive, forceful and self-assured ways; the desire for control and influence ○ An individual's relatively stable position in a social hierarchy resulting from his or her relative success in previous agonistic or competitive encounters with conspecifics ○ The relative degree of deference, respect, and attention an individual receives from others as a consequence of their perceived ability to use coercion, intimidation and imposition (control costs and benefits) Testosterone - A steroid hormone (i.e., androgen) - Produced by gonads (testes + ovaries) and smaller quantities produced in adrenal glands - Higher levels in blood and saliva in adult men compared to women ○ 8-10x higher in men's blood ○ Women may be more sensitive to effects of testosterone levels - Involved in basic physiological processes and reproduction - Has anabolic effects (protein tissue building) - e.g., muscle, bone mass, sperm production Before birth - Organisational-activational hypothesis ○ Organisation effects: ▪ Testosterone during second ▪ Structural, permanent effects that organise the nervous system and influence gendered behaviours - Second to Fourth Digit (finger) Ratio ○ 2nd to 4th digit ration as an indirect marker of prenatal testosterone exposure ▪ Organisational effects: □ Difficult to measure testosterone levels in amniotic fluid directly □ Discovery that the 2nd to 4th digit ratio is sexually dimorphic (men have lower 2d:4d ratios compared to women - but lots of variation) □ A lower 2D:4D ratio is related to greater prenatal testosterone exposure □ Lots of studies have measure digit ratio and correlated these ratios with aggressive behaviour - but results are weak and inconsistent Summary Key Points Social psychoneuroendocrinology combines social contexts, hormonal activity, brain functions, and psychological mechanisms. Aggression is behavior intended to harm and can be reactive (impulsive, provoked) or proactive (premeditated, goal-oriented). Dominance reflects the establishment of social hierarchy and varies in definition across fields. Testosterone is an androgen involved in physiological processes and reproduction, with higher levels in adult men but possibly more pronounced effects in women. Organizational-activational hypothesis refers to structural, permanent effects of prenatal testosterone on behavior. Studies linking the digit ratio (2D:4D) to prenatal testosterone show a weak association with aggressive and violent behaviors. Meta-analysis suggests that baseline testosterone has only a weak association with aggression. Biosocial model of status explores the reciprocal relationship between testosterone levels and dominance behaviors. Competition outcomes can weakly affect testosterone changes; winners typically show an increase. Testosterone's influence on competitive behaviors is moderated by trait dominance; high trait dominance amplifies aggression post testosterone rise. Testosterone administration in women leads to more competitive decisions following victory, prominently noticed amongst those with higher trait dominance. Variations in studies on competition outcomes and testosterone were influenced by factors like age, country of study, and competition duration. PSYC0010 Social Psychology Page 1 Notes Baseline testosterone and aggression Meta-analyses show only a weak association (r =.08; Archer et al., 2005) Biosocial model of status (Mazur, 1985; Mazur & Booth, 1998) Aggressive behaviour may be one type of dominant behaviour aimed at gaining or maintaining one's social status (Mazur & Booth , 1998) Reciprocal relationship between testosterone and dominance (Mazur & Booth, 1998) Notes Testosterone Response to Competition (Carre et al., 2009) - Aggressive Behaviour 99 participants (39 men, 60 women) Baseline saliva sample Rigged Number Tracing competition (6 puzzles) Post-competition saliva sample Aggressive Behaviour in Point Subtraction Aggression Paradigm Results: ○ Results similar to Mehta & Josephs, 2006 ○ H1 not supported (no difference in T change between winners and losers), but strong support for H2 in male losers (but not females) But in this study and Mehta & Josephs (2006), winners and losers were told they would were competing with the same opponent. What about a new opponent? Carre et al. (2013) ○ 237 university students (52% female) ○ Participants told second task was with a different same-sex participant Bidirectional feedback loop between testosterone and dominance Hint to multiple definitions of dominance H1. Lots of studies since the 1980s, with mixed results - done in sports competitions H2. First human study published in 2006 Meta-analysis of the effect of competition outcome on testosterone changes (Geniole et al., 2017) Weak overall winner-loser effect across studies - winners increase in testosterone, on average, relative to losers But there is substantial variability in findings across studies Competition outcome shows testosterone change (support biosocial model) Stanton et al., 2009 Investigated testosterone changes on election night in the 2008 US presidential election Testosterone Response to Competition (Mehta & Josephs, 2006)- competitive behaviour Participants did a number tracing task All-male participants (50) Baseline saliva sample Rigged Number Tracing competition (6 puzzles) Post-competition saliva sample Decision: Compete again against same opponent on six new puzzles of same task or complete questionnaire on food and entertainment preferences? - used to see if participant want to rise up hierarchy if wins or wants to "protect" themselves if loses Results: H1 not supported (no difference in T change between winners and losers), but strong support for H2 in losers Testosterone’ Self-con – – – The effe The pos found a Potential neu Orbitofr N = 32 p (the ulti Testoste provoca No sex d Biosocial model of status Hypothesis 1: competition outcome (victory vs. defeat) - victory increases testosterone and defeat decreases testosterone effects Hypothesis 2: post-competition testosterone change - shift in testosterone affect subsequent dominant behaviour Testosterone 121 hea elicit rea Testoste Lower s Testoste dominc ○ Results ▪ Testosterone levels rose in male winners compared to male losers ▪ Aggressive behaviour in males was higher after experiencing a victory relative to a defeat- *not statistically significant ▪ No significant effects in females ▪ Testosterone increases in men from before to after the competition = positively related to aggressive behaviour in both winners and losers ▪ In men, the effect of competition outcome (victory vs. defeat) on aggression was statistically mediated by testosterone change (i.e., victory -> testosterone increase -> aggression) Testosterone N = 16 h Placebo Testoste Emotion Biosocial model of status Despite support for H2 in the studies reviewed so far, other studies suggest that testosterone’s association with behaviours such as aggression depend on personality factors Trait dominance Items on this personality scale capture a motive to attain high status via force, fear and intimidation ○ “I try to control others rather than permit them to control me.” Testosterone depends on trait dominance Testosterone increases in men after a competitive victory were related to aggressive behaviour, but only among men high in se lf-reported trait dominance (Carre et al., 2009) Testosterone’s casual influence on competitive decision -making depends on self-reported trait dominance 54 women pharmacologically administered a single dose of testosterone or placebo and completed a competitive task Giving women a high dose of testosterone led them to make more competitive decisions after experiencing a victory, but this e ffect was seen only among women high in trait dominance (Mehta et al., 2015) Testosterone’s causal influence on feelings of hostility depend on trait dominance (Knight et al., 2017) 120 men given testosterone or placebo and then exposed to a social stressor Affect was measured at three time points Testosterone led to increased feelings of hostility from before to after the stressor compared to placebo, but only for men h igh in trait dominance Other studies show that hostile feelings predict aggressive behaviour - but study did not measure aggressive behaviour Potential neu Testoste Reward proce Notes causal influence aggressive behaviour on trait dominance (Carre et al., 2017) althy men pharmocologically adminstered a single dose of testosterone or placebo and comleted a task designed to active aggression erone increased aggressive behaviour compared to placebo - but only for men high in trait dominance scores on trait self-control measure indicate impulsivity erone increased aggressive behaviour compared to placebo, but only for men low in trait self-control and trait ance were separate effects - potentially with different underlying mechanisms ’s role in competition and aggression also depends on one’s self-construal (Welker et al., 2017) nstrual How people mentally represent the self as independent from others or interdependent with them Initially studied as a cultural difference (e.g., US independent, Japan interdependent) But can be studied as an individual difference factor within the same culture as well ect of competition outcome on testosterone changes was strongest among independent men sitive association between competition-related testosterone changes and subsequent aggressive behaviour was only among independent men ural mechanisms for testosterone’s association with aggression (Mehta & Beer, 2010) rontal cortex (OFC) – implicated in self-regulation and impulse control participants (17 men) provided a saliva sample and then completed an aggression-related task in the fMRI scanner imatum game) erone’s positive association with aggressive behaviour was mediated by reduced OFC activity following social ation (higher testosterone -> reduced OFC activity -> increased aggression) differences in testosterone-aggression association - but small sample size and amygdala activation (Goetz et al., 2014) healthy young men (Mage = 26.81) o-controlled, double-blinded, within-subject, crossover design (testosterone or placebo) erone increases amygdala reactivity to angry faces n Specificity: Testosterone’s effect specific to anger and did not show up for fear or surprise ural mechanisms for testosterone's association with aggression erone also disrupts functional connectivity between these amygdala and OFC - (van Wingen et al., 2010) essing systems (Gruber & Mehta, 2015) PSYC0010 Social Psychology Page 2 Testosterone's role in Neural Reward Processing In animal studies, decisive victories increase expression of androgen receptors in areas of the brain linked to motivation an d reward (e.g., nucleus accumbens) This may explain why testosterone increases after winning stimulate future aggressive and competitive behaviour Administering testosterone to human females increases activity in reward regions such as NAcc during anticipation of financia l reward (Hermans et al., 2010) Testosterone Increase after a Decisive Victory Related to Psychology Marker of Reward Processing: Enjoyment of Competitive Ta sk Mehta et al., (2015) ○ All-male participants (62) ○ Baseline saliva sample ○ Rigged number tracing competition (6 puzzles) against a confederate to either a relatively decisive or close victory ○ Post-competition saliva sample Dependent measures - How much did you enjoy the number tracking task (1-7 scale) - Competitive decision-making Results - Testosterone increase after a decisive victory was related to a desire to compete as well as increased enjoyment of the competitive task Four psychological interventions (Denson, 2015) Discusses four psychological interventions as proposed by Denson (2015) to reduce provocation, anger, and aggression. Cognitive Reappraisal (Denson, 2015) - Re-interpretation of a social provocation into neutral, less emotional terms - Early appraisal buffers emotional response ▪ Prior to an insult, participant informed that other participant is in a bad mood and to not take it personally □ This information reduced anger compared to the control condition - 8-week re-appraisal training reduced desire for vengeance compared to control condition Notes Emotion Regulation Strategies: ○ Cognitive Reappraisal: Reinterpreting situations to change their emotional impact (e.g., viewing criticism as a learning opportunity). ○ Self-Control Training: Strengthening self-control capacities through exercises like the handgrip exercise. ○ Cognitive Control Training: Improving ability to suppress impulsive responses (e.g., computerized tasks inhibiting specific reactions). ○ Mindfulness: Maintaining awareness of thoughts, feelings, and surroundings through meditation (reduces aggression by promoting non-judgmental acceptance). Fast Track Program: ○ Multi-faceted intervention for children's social skills, emotional regulation, and academic performance. ○ Effective in reducing aggressive behavior (Conduct & Oppositional Defiant Disorders Prevention Group, 1999). ○ Positive effects persist into adulthood (Dodge et al., 2015). ○ May lead to changes in biological markers like reduced cortisol reactivity (Zonnevylle -Bender et al., 2007). Testosterone and Prosocial Status-Seeking in Women: ○ Testosterone linked to prosocial behaviors in women, particularly in competitive contexts (Edwards & Casto, 2013). ○ May promote behaviors enhancing social status rather than direct aggression. ○ Oestradiol linked to dominance and competitive strategies, especially in mate selection and fertility (Stanton & Schultheiss, 2009). ○ Expression of testosterone-influenced behaviors highly context-dependent (Casto & Edwards, 2016). Dominance vs. Prestige across the Menstrual Cycle: ○ Dominance: Gaining status through force, fear, or intimidation. ○ Prestige: Gaining status through skills and expertise. ○ Women's preference for these strategies may vary across the menstrual cycle. ○ Some research suggests preference for prestige strategies during fertile phases (Durante et al., 2013). ○ Hormones like oestradiol and progesterone influence social strategies (Maner & McNulty, 2013). Key Conclusions: ○ Testosterone's role in aggression and dominance is complex, context-dependent, and influenced by biological and environmental factors (Archer, 2006). ○ Psychological interventions show promise, but require more robust studies to confirm efficacy (Denson, 2015). ○ Gender differences exist in status strategies, varying between individuals and contexts (Cheng et al., 2010). Self-control training (Denson, 2015) - Practicing self-control, typically over a period of two weeks or more ▪ Self-control is a general ability that can be strengthened with practice ▪ Using non-dominant hand in everyday tasks for 2 weeks ▪ Self-control training reduced reactive aggression to provocation (an insult) compared to control group □ But only for high in trait aggression (Denson et al., 2011) ▪ However, a recent longitudinal study that included 12 weeks of training did not replicate this effect (Beames et al., 2023) Cognitive Control Training: - More specific than self-control training, this involves exercising inhibitory control in response to hostile cues, especially after being primed with hostile or non-hostile words. Mindfulness: - Encourages a state of non-judgmental awareness, focusing on the present moment with acceptance of ongoing experiences. Studies suggest mindfulness exercises can reduce aggression following rejection experiences. Notes PSYC0010 Social Psychology Page 3 Notes Notes PSYC0010 Social Psychology Page 4 PSYC0010 Social Psychology Page 5