SOCI 102/122 Diversity of Peoples and Cultures PDF

 SOCI 102/122 DIVERSITY OF PEOPLES AND CULTURES Session 1 – EVOLUTION AND DIVERSITY OF HUMANITY Lecturer: Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, UG Contact Information: [email protected]/[email protected] College of Education School of Continuing and D...

 SOCI 102/122 DIVERSITY OF PEOPLES AND CULTURES Session 1 – EVOLUTION AND DIVERSITY OF HUMANITY Lecturer: Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, UG Contact Information: [email protected]/[email protected] College of Education School of Continuing and Distance Education 2014/2015 – 2016/2017  Session Overview Introduction This session gives an account how the human race has evolved throughout history to the preset times and in the evolutionary process, how humans got adapted physically and environmentally and diversified as a human race. Objectives At the end of the session, the student will be able to: Trace the origin and evolution of humans over time Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 2  Session outline The topic discussed in this session is: The origin and evolution of humans over time Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 3  Reading list Assimeng, M. (1999), Social Structure of Ghana, Tema, Ghana Publishing Corporation. Kottak, C. P. (2004), Cultural Anthropology, Boston, McGraw Hill Corporation. Kottak, C. P. (2004), Anthropology: The Exploration of Human Diversity, Boston, McGraw Hill Corporation. Nolan, P. & G. Lenski, (2004 or any of the newer editions), Human Societies: An introduction to macrosociology, Boulder Paradigm Publishers. Nukunya, G. K. (2006), Tradition and change in Ghana: An introduction to sociology, Accra, Ghana University Press. Sanderson, S. K. & A. S. Alderson (2005 or its newer editions), World societies: the evolution of human life, Boston, Pearson Education Inc. Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 4  Topic One The Origin and Evolution of Humans Over Time Imagine that you have a photo album that contains 100 pages of photos from the beginning humans’ existence on earth You flip through the pages and see that for almost 50 pages you see photos of people who are physically like us but “primitive”, naked or almost naked and clad in leaves, animal skins, carrying simple tools such as sticks, wooden spears, bones, stones, etc. foraging for edible plants, roots, fruits, hunting animals, or sometimes banding together to hunt animals also animals hunting them. You may ask why have they been like this all these 50 years In the next 30 pages you see occasional innovations and change. Some new kinds of tools would appear such iron spears, better clothing, paintings in cages, needles, crude dugout canoes, Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 5  Topic One: The Origin and Evolution of Humans Over Time (cont’d) The next 10 years you will see domestication of animals and animals rearing , some minor permanent settlements, some people seriously beginning farming first in todays Middles East ,etc. The next 8 years, major scientific breakthroughs and inventions occurring first in Western Europe (Britain, France and Germany in particular) leading to technological and industrial revolution and people moving from rural settlements to larges industrials cities, the development of the clock, trains, airplanes, ships, mega cities, etc. Then in the next one and a half years, there was the trans-Atlantic slave trade, colonialism and independence in Africa And in the last six months, there is ICT revolution and people siting in front of desk and lap top computers, people communicating through the internet, mobile phones, smartphones, tablets, i-phones, through Skype, videoconferencing, social media platforms such as, facebook, whatsapp, viber, etc. Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 6  Topic One: Origin and Evolution of Humans Over Time (cont’d) This synopsis of the human condition and its material transformation presented above indicates that humans have been on earth for a very long time. Historians, archaeologists and anthropologists reckon that the world took shape some five (5) billions years ago and some 60 million years ago early primates emerged on earth, 10 million years ago early humans developed larger brains, 5 millions ago, humans having our present form emerged and began roaming the earth’s surface so that about 10, 000 years humans everywhere humans were foragers or hunter-gatherers. Since then we have come along way in terms of human adaptation and socio-cultural transformation. Unlike other animals and primates, our ability to develop large brains, language and culture: both non-material and material culture has increased and improved such that we are not only able to build viable human associations, communities and societies But also to develop and modernize these societies such that some parts of humanity are now in modern technologically advanced stages and others in varying degrees are also on the way of modernity. Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 7  Topic One: The Origin and Evolution of Humans Over Time (cont’d) What is interesting about our historical photos and accounts is that modernity is a recent phenomenon in our entire human history but what is interesting about modernity is that it is the era that has brought the greatest change to our lives compared to other earlier civilizations Auguste Comte would say that humanity has moved from the theological stage to the metaphysical and then to the positivistic or the scientific stage Some scholars see this transformation as a movement from traditional to modern society Others will dub it, a movement away from the Stone Age to Bronze Age and to the Industrial and Post-industrial Age and now we are in the Digital and increasingly paperless Age Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 8  Summary of the Session In this session you have learnt that: The earth took shape several billions years ago Humans appeared on earth about (5) billions years ago and Some 60 million years ago early primates emerged on earth, 10 million years ago early humans developed larger brains, 5 millions ago, humans developed into our present forms and began roaming the earth so that About 10, 000 years ago humans everywhere were foragers or hunter- gatherers. Since then, we have come along way in terms of human adaptation and socio-cultural transformation, developing science and industries, modern cities, and moved recently into the computer and digital age Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 9  SOCI 102/122 DIVERSITY OF PEOPLES AND CULTURES Session 2 – Environment and Human Adaptability Lecturer: Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, UG Contact Information: [email protected] College of Education School of Continuing and Distance Education 2014/2015 – 2016/2017  Session Overview Introduction This session explores the relationship between types of physical environments and human adaptability. Objectives At the end of the session, the student will be able to: Define what environment is Develop knowledge on different physical environments that humans find themselves in Have knowledge about the possibilities and challenges these environments offer humans Explain how humans have adapted to these environments Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo Slide 2  Reading list Assimeng, M. (1999), Social Structure of Ghana, Tema, Ghana Publishing Corporation. Kottak, C. P. (2004), Cultural Anthropology, Boston, McGraw Hill Corporation. Kottak, C. P. (2004), Anthropology: The Exploration of Human Diversity, Boston, McGraw Hill Corporation. Nolan, P. & G. Lenski, (2004 or any of the newer editions), Human Societies: An introduction to macrosociology, Boulder Paradigm Publishers. Nukunya, G. K. (2006), Tradition and change in Ghana: An introduction to sociology, Accra, Ghana University Press. Sanderson, S. K. & A. S. Alderson (2005 or its newer editions), World societies: the evolution of human life, Boston, Pearson Education Inc. Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 3  Topic One: Definition of the Environment The term environment refers to “everything that is external to a specified population and that has any affect on it” (Nolan and Lenski, 2006:10). Animals have their environments and so do humans. For example, chimpanzees, gorillas and monkeys have the tropical forests and other plants and animals on which they depend on or feed on as their environments Some animals also have rivers, lakes, lagoons and the seas as their environment Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo Slide 4  Definition of the Environment (cont’d) For human societies as Nolan and Lenski (2006) explain it, our environments include such things as the soils minerals and water resources, climate, air, terrains, plants, animals and other features of the territories we occupy. These environments also include other human societies that our members come into contact with. Therefore for a given human society, its environment includes both the physical and the social world. Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo Slide 5  Topic Two: Differences in Environment Human beings across the world find themselves in different types of environments. There are some people who live in large political units such as Africa, others in Europe, Asia, United States of America, Latin America, the Middle East, etc. However, these political units possess different environmental characteristics. In terms of climatic conditions, some are hot and some are cold, they experience different amounts of rainfall and have different types of vegetation, etc. The soils and minerals as well as water resources are of the human environment are different. Simply put the human environment is highly diversified and keeps changing Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo Slide 6  Topic Three: Possibilities and Challenges The differences in environments mean that the environments presents humanity opportunities as well as challenges For some societies, particularly the traditional ones, or the so-called primitive societies, the environments (or to be precise their biophysical environments) provided almost all they needed but they also contained wild animals that posed threats to their existence Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo Slide 7  Possibilities and Challenges (cont’d) Some biophysical environments offer opportunity for more diseases and pollutions than others Some environments offer much more known mineral resources than others Some experience more rainfall that others and others are just deserts. The social environment also poses opportunities and challenges. Through contact, different societies gain from each other, goods and ideas which become mutually beneficial to them Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo Slide 8  Possibilities and Challenges (cont’d) However, the social environment can be a threat to the survival or viability for some societies The interactions among societies also lead to underdevelopment and poverty for others As others societies such as the US and her western allies such as Britain, France, Germany, Japan, Australia, etc. seek to access the resources of other nations to generate and maintain their high standard of material living, they create poverty for the societies in Africa and other parts of the so-called developing world. It can be argued that Africa’s resources are being exploited and looted by wealthy nations and Africans remain poor and trapped in perennial debt and dependency relations with these exploiter nations This social environment or contact is therefore a threat to Africa’s viability and progress. Throughout history and in this 21 st century some societies, usually the developed and technologically advanced, would even wage war on other societies, leading to death of millions of people, absolute poverty, hunger, internal displacement, homelessness, despair, etc. while they experience peace, stability wealth and material progress Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo Slide 9  Topic Four: Human Adaptations to Environments In order survive, human societies must interact with their respective environments Some environments are relatively more generous in terms of natural resources than others thus offering human greater possibilities for development. Those that are less endowed with resources have greater challenges to survive than others Thus it is often said that the environment to a great extent determines what humans can do—the theory of environmental determinism. For example, if you live near the sea, you are likely to become a fisherman, or if you live in an environment where rainfall is abundant as in the Western and Ashanti regions of Ghana you are likely to grow crops such as cassava, plantain, cocoyam and cocoa which require much rainfall. Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo Slide 10  Human Adaptations to Environments (cont’d) However, if you live in the Northern regions of Ghana where rainfall is low, you are likely to grow cereals such as maize, millet, sorghum, and rear animals—all requiring low rainfall Eventually these differences translates into different foods and food habits for those in Southern and Northern Ghana. Thus the environment surely contributes significantly to human diversity Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo Slide 11  Human Adaptations to Environments (cont’d) The environmental determinism idea or theory should however be qualified. The environment may surely create possibilities and challenges but humans develop both material and non-material culture and so create science and technology that they can use to overcome environmental challenges and constraints In many parts of the world such as the Sahara desert, and the temperate regions of Canada, Europe, Russia etc. humans experience great environmental challenges in the form of long and extreme cold season, short periods for growing crops, however, through human’s ingenuity, innovativeness and technological advancement, most of these challenges have been overcome and life is bearable than many centuries before. Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo Slide 12  Conclusion: Environment and Human Adaptability In this session we have: defined the environment and distinguished between the biophysical environment and the social environment provided knowledge on different types physical environments and how they shape the human conditions learnt that humans need to interact with their environments to secure a living learnt that environmental conditions and resources provide humans with possibilities and challenges learnt that the environment to a large extent determines human activity but humans also have the capacity to shape the environment and even overcome some of its constraints Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo Slide 13  SOCI 102/122 Diversity of Peoples and Cultures Session 3 –Making a Living Hunting-Gathering and Horticulture Lecturer: Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, UG Contact Information: [email protected] College of Education School of Continuing and Distance Education 2014/2015 – 2016/2017  Session Overview Introduction This session introduces students to earliest attempts humans made to survive or the secure a living for themselves. These are hunting and gathering adaptive strategies as known as foraging and horticulture Objectives At the end of the session, the student will be able to: Identify the earliest mechanisms/techniques through which humans have tried to satisfy their survival needs—which we call adaptive strategies Identify and explain the characteristic features of these adaptive strategies Explain why these mechanisms still survive in some parts of the modern world. Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 2  Session Outline In this session we shall be concerned with: Describing hunting and gathering societies Explaining their characteristic features Indicating where they are located in the modern world Showing their Present State and Future Prospects Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 3  Reading List Assimeng, M. (1999), Social Structure of Ghana, Tema, Ghana Publishing Corporation. Kottak, C. P. (2004), Cultural Anthropology, Boston, McGraw Hill Corporation. Kottak, C. P. (2004), Anthropology: The Exploration of Human Diversity, Boston, McGraw Hill Corporation. Nolan, P. & G. Lenski, (2004 or any of the newer editions), Human Societies: An introduction to macrosociology, Boulder Paradigm Publishers. Nukunya, G. K. (2006), Tradition and change in Ghana: An introduction to sociology, Accra, Ghana University Press. Sanderson, S. K. & A. S. Alderson (2005 or its newer editions), World societies: the evolution of human life, Boston, Pearson Education Inc. Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 4  Topic One: The Human Condition and Adaptive Strategies Over this long period of history, humans have struggled to exist in various environments and they have developed multiple strategies or means of survival with increasing sophistication to survive or make a living. These various strategies to survive is what we refer to as adaptive strategies. The types of adaptive strategies they have developed are hunting-gathering, horticulture (subsistence agriculture), pastoralism, agriculture, industrialization and different accompanying forms of distribution. We will discuss the hunting-gathering adaptive strategy first Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 5  Topic Two: Origin of Hunting or Foraging Societies All humans until about 10,000 to 12,000 years ago, all humans everywhere were foragers However differences in environments created different patterns of foraging For example in the hot climates foragers have a greater variety of plant and animal species that those in the cold climate; or some foragers specializes in fishing from the sea, rivers, lagoon Irrespective of their environments, all foragers are mainly dependent on what nature supplies them Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 6  Topic Two: Hunting and Gathering (cont’d) Hunter-Gatherers are normadic meaning when resources became scarce, the group moved to a new area to find sustenance These societies were common until several hundred years ago, but today only a few hundred remain in existence, such as indigenous Australian tribes sometimes referred to as “aborigines,” or the Bambuti, a group of pygmy hunter-gatherers residing in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Hunter-gatherer groups are quickly disappearing as the world’s population explodes. Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 7  Topic Two: Hunting and Gathering Society (cont’d) They predominant depend solely what the environment can offer in terms of raw food. The came into existence about 10,000–12,000 years ago, Groups were based on mainly kinship ties move in bands of 5 to 10 They were highly mobile, division of labour is based on gender Hunter-gatherers relied on their surroundings for survival— they hunted animals and foraged for uncultivated plants for food Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 8  Hunting or Foraging Societies (cont’d):Correlates or Features Foragers are usually mobile people and have few material possessions. They usually live in bands usually determined by kinship relations The division of labour is based mainly on gender. Men typically hunt animals or fish while women gather fruits, edible plants or vegetables, root crops and stay at home or in the domestic/private spheres to take care of the young ones Whatever social distinctions existed were based mainly on age. Older people provide leadership, and are revered as having wisdom and young ones given respect to them Foraging societies are mostly “egalitarian” the few social differences we can perceive based on differences in and gender Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 9  Hunting or Foraging Societies (cont’d): In Historical and Contemporary Times Historically foragers are found in many parts of the world. For example, in Africa, Asia, Europe, North America, South America, Asia, etc. Today foragers exist in many nation-states and often their ways of life are coming under threat from modernization and development processes However, some few have held tenaciously to their way of life either because their environment continuous to supply their needs or governments or colonialists have not found their environments attractive enough for exploitation and development Some so-called modern people continue to engage in foraging. For example in Africa people continue to hunt in forest, fish in lakes, seas, rivers, lay traps for animals, gather mushrooms, snails, mangoes, etc. even though they can be said to be in modernizing and developing societies. Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 10  Conclusions In this session we have: Examined the evolution of humans and their adaptability to different environments throughout history Defined Adaptive Strategies as the various means through which humans secure living Described and analyzed the earliest adaptive strategy: hunting and gathering techniques Examined the characteristics or features of hunting and gathering societies Attempted to show where they are located in the world Assess their historical and present state Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 11  SOCI 102/122 Diversity of Peoples and Cultures Session 4 – Making a Living: Pastoralism and Agriculture Lecturer: Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, UG Contact Information: [email protected] College of Education School of Continuing and Distance Education 2014/2015 – 2016/2017  Session Overview Introduction This section is sequel to the preceding one and examines the additional and more superior forms of adaptive mechanisms humans developed in the course of their history, namely cultivation (which can be further distinguished into horticulture & agriculture) and also pastoralism. Objectives At the end of the session, the student will be able to: Examine horticulture and agriculture as adaptive strategies Distinguish how agriculture differs from horticulture Explain the concept of cultivation continuum Examine pastoralism as adaptive strategy Distinguish between two types of pastoralism Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 2  Session Outline The key topics to be covered in the session are as follows: Topic One : Horticulture Topic Two : Agriculture Topic Three: The Cultivation Continuum Topic Four: Pastoralism Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 3  Reading List Assimeng, M. (1999), Social Structure of Ghana, Tema, Ghana Publishing Corporation. Kottak, C. P. (2004), Cultural Anthropology, Boston, McGraw Hill Corporation. Kottak, C. P. (2004), Anthropology: The Exploration of Human Diversity, Boston, McGraw Hill Corporation. Nolan, P. & G. Lenski, (2004 or any of the newer editions), Human Societies: An introduction to macrosociology, Boulder Paradigm Publishers. Nukunya, G. K. (2006), Tradition and change in Ghana: An introduction to sociology, Accra, Ghana University Press. Sanderson, S. K. & A. S. Alderson (2005 or its newer editions), World societies: the evolution of human life, Boston, Pearson Education Inc. Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 4  Topic One: Horticulture Horticulture or shifting cultivation as known in many discussions on the Third World and particularly African agricultural systems, is the perhaps first attempt by humans to cultivate crops. It is an improvement over foraging or hunting and gathering adaptive strategies considered in the preceding session. Creative and clever as humans are they probably saw the foolishness of time consuming and labourous foraging was and also perhaps also saw that the seeds of fruits and edible roots, plants, etc. could be grown and later consumed so they began the cultivation. Given the low level of technological development or material culture, horticulture makes no intensive use of the factors of production: land, labour, capital and technology or machines Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 5  Topic One: Horticulture (cont’d) Horticulturalists rather make use of simple tools, such as digging sticks, hoes, mattocks, machetes/cutlasses, to undertake their cultivation Their farming lands are not cultivated permanently They are likely not to own the land privately but communally. Fields are cultivated usually once or twice and are left to lie fallow for varying periods of time before being cultivated again, depending on the fertility and invading weeds Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 6  Topic One: Horticulture (cont’d) Horticulture is also known as shifting cultivation meaning cultivators shift from plot to plot. Horticulturalists unlike foragers who move from place to place, are more likely to have permanent settlements and so are able to build communities of about 100 to 200 even more members and usually have a clearly identifiable social and political/governing systems. The basic technique of cultivation of horticulturalist is called slash and burn. The land is cleared by cutting down forests, grasses and trees (slash) and letting them dry and then burning them. Although burning may result in the destruction of some living organisms that provide the field nutrients, the ashes generated as a result the burning generate potassium that also serve as fertilizer Little or no fertilizers are used Cultivation usually is rain-fed and is meant mainly for subsistence. Horticulturalists also continue to engage in hunting and gathering activities Societies that are predominantly horticultural are increasingly incorporating agriculture as an adaptive strategy Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 7  Topic One: Horticulture (cont’d) They make use of simple tools such as hoes, cutlass, digging sticks, etc. The practice slash and burn and shifting cultivation Mainly driven by human labour Little use of fertilizer, improved seeds, etc. Mainly for subsistence Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 8  Topic Two: Agriculture Agriculture is a term used to describe a cultivation system that uses more labour, capital, technology and land more permanently or continuously than horticulture. In some agricultural systems, the less demand for labour because of the use of more machinery and technology, for example agriculture in the developed countries such the US, Canada, Britain Australia, Japan, etc. In some systems more labour is demanded because of the use of domesticated, irrigation and terracing of hills and mountainous land In the above context, animals are use to plow and harrow fields, to trample pre- tilled fields and mixing fields with water, as a means of transporting harvests, and their droppings as manure—organic manure. Buffalos, donkeys, cattle, etc. Unlike horticulturalists, agriculturalists often use irrigation facilities from streams, rivers, ponds, springs to cultivate crops year after year. They are likely to make use of chemical manure and so fields can be cultivated on permanent basis. Cultivation yields per land and labour are usually higher for agriculturalists than horticulturalists. Agriculture is thus more dependable than horticulture. Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 9  Topic Three: The Cultivation Continuum Because these adaptive strategies seem to follow each other and do exist in varying degrees in societies that are not industrialized or advanced economies we conceive of them as existing along a cultivation continuum. The world continuum denotes something starting from one point and ending on another Horticultural systems stand at one point—low labour, shifting farming fields, using less scientific techniques and less machines, etc. developing… and agricultural systems at the other point with permanent fields, use of irrigation facilities and more scientific knowledge and technology. Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 10  Topic Four: Pastoralism Pastoralism exist when there the domestication of and rearing of animals such as cattle, sheep, goats, camels, yak, etc. as major economic activity to survive In Pastoralism animals and humans engage in symbiotic relationships. Humans protect these animals to ensure their safety, health and reproduction and they depend on them for food (milk, dairy products such as yogurt, butter, chees), meat and other products such as leather Pastoralists need large fields to rear their animals and are often mobile like horticulturalists looking for green pastures for their animals Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 11  Topic Four: Pastoralism (cont’d) Mobility is a characteristic of pastoralism. Animals must be moved around but two types of pastoralism are often distinguished based on the movement of animals: (i) pastoral nomadism and (ii) transhumance Pastoral nomadism: this is where the entire group of herders men, women and children move with their animals throughout the year. During the treks pastoral nomads trade their animals for food and other valuables. Transhumance nomads: this is where part of the group usually the males move with the animals to look for pasture while most people stay at home. Transhumants also cultivate crops as well and need not to depend solely on their animals for their survival Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 12  Conclusion In this session we have discussed two types of cultivation strategies. They are: Horticulture and agriculture We argued that many non-industrialized societies have these two cultivation strategies We argued that we should regard both horticulture and agriculture as existing along a cultivation continuum Pastoralism is the rearing of animals as a major economic activity We distinguished two types of pastoralism: pastoral nomadism (i.e. rearing of animals and moving with them) and transhumance (having permanent settlements and rearing animals as major activity but also cultivating crops as adjunct activity) Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 13  SOCI 102/122 Diversity of Peoples and Cultures Session 5 –– INDUSTRIALIZATION AND INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION SYSTEM Lecturer: Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, UG Contact Information: [email protected] College of Education School of Continuing and Distance Education 2014/2015 – 2016/2017  Session Overview Introduction This session examines industrialization as the most recent adaptive strategy that humans have invented. Industrial production began in the 18th and 19th century Europe and that is the period sociology also emerged as a scientific study of society. This industrial process spread across the globe through a variety of processes but mainly the conquering and subjugation of other societies in the world. Most of these subjugated societies are striving to industrialize while others mostly the western societies are far advanced that some scholars maintain that they have entered post- industrial state and even are becoming post-modern societies. Industrialization is also said by some scholars to be globalizing the world, i.e. the world is becoming increasingly a one world in terms production and consumption, cultural values, etc.. Objectives At the end of the session, the student will be able to: Explain what industrial production and industrial societies are Identify the characteristic features of industrialism Determine the effects of industrialization on society and human relations Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 2  Session Outline The key topics to be covered in the session are as follows: Topic One: Industrial production and industrial societies Topic Two: Features of Industrial societies Topic Three: Effects of industrialization on society and human relations Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 3  Reading List Assimeng, M. (1999), Social Structure of Ghana, Tema, Ghana Publishing Corporation. Kottak, C. P. (2004), Cultural Anthropology, Boston, McGraw Hill Corporation. Kottak, C. P. (2004), Anthropology: The Exploration of Human Diversity, Boston, McGraw Hill Corporation. Nolan, P. & G. Lenski, (2004 or any of the newer editions), Human Societies: An introduction to macrosociology, Boulder Paradigm Publishers. Nukunya, G. K. (2006), Tradition and change in Ghana: An introduction to sociology, Accra, Ghana University Press. Sanderson, S. K. & A. S. Alderson (2005 or its newer editions), World societies: the evolution of human life, Boston, Pearson Education Inc. Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 4  Topic One: Industrial Production and Societies Industrial production involves the use of scientific knowledge and technology in the productive process. It involves the organization of people on large scale to under take a productive process. Industrial production involves the reorganization and transformation of earlier or existing adaptive strategies to secure a living. Industrial societies are also known as the advanced societies, or the modern societies, or the Western and Eastern societies, or the North, or the First and Second world countries. Examples are the US, Britain, France, Germany Japan, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, Sweden, Norway, etc. These are countries whose economic production system is driven mainly by science and technology Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 5  Session Two: Features of Industrial societies Industrial societies have the following features: They are societies with large with large numbers of people—high population and most of their members live in cities or urban communities and human relations Member of modern societies are diverse in ethnicity, religion, Sociology as Science culture, occupations and so these people are heterogeneous Most people have to work in large organizations and institutions also known as bureaucracy There is high division of labour and most people are specialists in their own fields and jobs The products of people labour are appropriated by others— (managers, business owners and the state) and so workers experience alienation which means they do not own the products of their labour, they are alienated from them Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 6  Session Three: Effects of industrialization The effects of industrializations are mainly. The major ones are: People are alienated from the products of their labour so the feel they are working for others, they do no feel pride that they owned the end product of their activities People are no long as emotional and affectionate, they develop more and more impersonal relationships with their products, coworkers and employers People sell their labour for cash and they are very calculative in what they do. They want to maximize the income and lower their costs Most people’s relationships derive work place, kinship is no longer the only basis for developing relationship. Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 7  CONCLUSION In this session we have examined: What industrial production and industrial societies are; their features and as well as effects on humans Industrial societies are quite distinct from traditional societies. Unlike traditional societies which are small and based mainly on kinship relations, industrial societies have large and complex based more on occupational relationship. All societies seem to have evolved or are evolving from foraging, through horticultural, agricultural to industrialized level There are fundamental differences in how the organize to make a living. Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 8  SOCI 102/122 Diversity of Peoples and Cultures Session 6 –DISTRIBUTION AND EXCHANGE: THE MARKET PRINCIPLE AND RECIPROCITY Lecturer: Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, UG Contact Information: [email protected] College of Education School of Continuing and Distance Education 2014/2015 – 2016/2017  Session Overview Introduction This session deals with how different societies deal with the distribution and exchange of goods and services. In modern societies, goods and services are distributed through the price mechanism and the search of profit and minimization of cost/prices of goods guide both producers and consumers. In this case, both producers and consumers are said to be rational decision makers. However, in some other societies, exchange is not dictated by the search for profit, but rather other social values, through the principle of reciprocity and there exist different types of reciprocity in human societies. Although we make such as sharp distinction between these two, in reality both market principle and reciprocity are found in varying degrees in many modern societies. Objectives At the end of the session, the student will be able to: explain what is meant by distribution and exchange explain what is meant market principles determining exchange and distribution explain the principle of reciprocity identify the various types of reciprocity Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 2  Session Outline The key topics to be covered in this session are as follows: Topic One: Distribution and Exchange Topic Two: Market Principles and Redistribution Topic Three: Principles and Types of Reciprocity Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 3  Reading List Assimeng, M. (1999), Social Structure of Ghana, Tema, Ghana Publishing Corporation. Kottak, C. P. (2004), Cultural Anthropology, Boston, McGraw Hill Corporation. Kottak, C. P. (2004), Anthropology: The Exploration of Human Diversity, Boston, McGraw Hill Corporation. Nolan, P. & G. Lenski, (2004 or any of the newer editions), Human Societies: An introduction to macrosociology, Boulder Paradigm Publishers. Nukunya, G. K. (2006), Tradition and change in Ghana: An introduction to sociology, Accra, Ghana University Press. Sanderson, S. K. & A. S. Alderson (2005 or its newer editions), World societies: the evolution of human life, Boston, Pearson Education Inc. Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 4  Topic one: Distribution and Exchange Every human society engages in production, distribution (exchange) and consumption of goods and services and some human behaviours and social organizations are attached to all these activities. One may ask what motivates people in different cultures to produce, distribute (or exchange) and consume Answering these questions leads us to the issue of motivation that lies behind all these activities Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 5  Topic One: Distribution and Exchange (cont’d) In the developed, modern or industrial world, people produce, exchange and consume goods and services on the principle of scarcity of resources in relation to human wants and needs Because human wants and needs are limitless and the resources for satisfying them are limited, humans have to economize In economizing, every individual (be it in production, distribution and consumption) is thought of as calculative and rational and will like to maximize profit as much as possible So in the developed world, the market operates to bring together producers and consumers who interact to determine prices The price that is arrived at for a particular product or service is judged as the one that satisfies all participants in the market The price is determined by how much of the product is supplied and how much of it is demanded: hence the law of demand and supply operating in the market. Therefore, the market decides price and the allocation of resources in society Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 6  Topic Two Market Principles and Re-distribution So in the developed mostly capitalist societies, the operation of the market decides how the means of production: land, labour, financial capital, natural resources, technology are acquired for production. The buyer and seller are motivated to make profit or the get much value or money’s worth. However not all societies place priority on making profits when the exchange and consume products, services. So we have market principle operating more in the developed world and principles of reciprocity operating more in the less developed world. However, by today’s standard most societies operate to varying degree all the above distributive mechanism Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 7  Topic Three: Principles and Types of Reciprocity In the less developed societies, a lot of exchanges do take place through the reciprocity People cherish other values than profit, so profit will not always be the determining factor of exchange People reciprocate and exchange products among equals who are related mostly by kinship, marriage, adoption or close personal relationships. They value these social goods, social relationship and friendliness than pure profit so the market does not always operate Principles of reciprocity operates more among foragers, cultivators and pastoralist Three types of reciprocity are found depending on (i) how closely related the parties are to each other in the exchange and (ii) How quickly and unselfishly gifts/goods are reciprocated. The three types are (i) generalized reciprocity, (ii) balanced reciprocity and (iii) negative reciprocity Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 8  Topic Three: Principles and Types of Reciprocity (cont’d) The three types of reciprocity found in non-industrialized societies are: Generalized reciprocity: this happens when someone gives another persons something but does not expect any concrete and immediate return as parents give things to their children. Children are only to show respect, love, honour, loyalty, etc. (ii) Balanced reciprocity: this happens when people are more distantly related than members of the same household, family. Here because of distance, the giver expects something in return although immediately. However if the gift is not reciprocated in the future the relationship would be strained (iii) Negative reciprocity: This happens with strangers and people who are distant. Because the parties may not see each other again, they want something in return for what they are giving out. Exchanging with outsiders is full of ambiguities, suspicions and mistrust. The more the social distance between the parties are the more parties want something in resturn. Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 9  Topic Three Principles and Types of Reciprocity (cont’d) In modern societies, because many people are strangers there is the market so that all parties get something quickly in return for whatever they are exchanging. Generalized reciprocity and balanced reciprocity are based on trust and intense social ties, whereas negative reciprocity exist because of less trust and weak social ties hence every party endeavours to get something in return in the exchange. This situation often times leads parties to engage in cagey and deceitful businesses with others. However, it must be noted that all these exchange mechanisms are found in varying degrees in all societies. Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 10  Topic Three Principles and Types of Reciprocity (cont’d) Read on the following redistributive practices: (i) Potlatching among the people of North Pacific Coast of North America (ii) The Kula Ring (iii) Use your sociological imaginations and provide examples of re-distributive practices in your society, Ghana, Nigeria, etc. Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 11  CONCLUSION In this sessions, we have discussed the following: The different modes of distribution and exchange The issue of scarcity of resources in relation to wants and needs and why humans are thought of as rational. The operation of the market for the maximization of profits Principles and types of reciprocity and set examples Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 12  SOCI 102/122 Diversity of Peoples and Cultures Session 7 –RELIGION AND THE SUPERNATURAL Lecturer: Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, UG Contact Information: [email protected] College of Education School of Continuing and Distance Education 2014/2015 – 2016/2017  Session Overview Introduction This session deals with religion and the supernatural. Religion exists in one form or the other in all societies. There is therefore religious diversity in the world. There are also beliefs in the supernatural beings. Apart from the ultimate God that forms the basis of some major religions, there are also beliefs in the supernatural entities which are considered as religious. Other supernatural beliefs include the belief in the lesser gods, the Ancestors, Angels, Demons, Devils, Ghosts, Shaman, witches, etc. All these are seen by many people as having supernatural powers. The supernatural is the realm that is beyond our ken or our understanding. Religious beliefs normally portray the world supernaturally rather than scientifically. In this Unit, we shall learn about some of the forms this universal social institution takes and the meanings they have for those who adhere to them. However, the emphasis would be traditional religion and religious belief systems. These issues will be pursued in this session and the next. Objectives Define religion Explain why sociologists and anthropologists are interested in religion Explain the various theories of religion Functions of Religion Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 2  Session Outline The key topics to be covered in the session are as follows: Topic One: Definitions of Religion Topic Two: Why sociologists and anthropologists are interested in religion Topic Three: Theories of Religion Topic Four: Functions of Religion Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 3  Reading List Assimeng, M. (1999), Social Structure of Ghana, Tema, Ghana Publishing Corporation. Kottak, C. P. (2004), Cultural Anthropology, Boston, McGraw Hill Corporation. Kottak, C. P. (2004), Anthropology: The Exploration of Human Diversity, Boston, McGraw Hill Corporation. Nolan, P. & G. Lenski, (2004 or any of the newer editions), Human Societies: An introduction to macrosociology, Boulder Paradigm Publishers. Nukunya, G. K. (2006), Tradition and change in Ghana: An introduction to sociology, Accra, Ghana University Press. Sanderson, S. K. & A. S. Alderson (2005 or its newer editions), World societies: the evolution of human life, Boston, Pearson Education Inc. Crapo R. H. (2002 or newer editions) Cultural Anthropology: Understanding Ourselves & Other, Boston, McGraw Hill. Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slid  Topic One: Definition of Religion The anthropologist Anthony F. C. Wallace defines religion as “belief and ritual concerned with supernatural beings, powers, and forces (1966:5). Crapo (2002: 198) sees religion as “belief in supernatural beings and supernatural power, symbolic expressions of feelings and rituals performed both individually and in groups for the purpose of influencing supernatural beings and powers”. Emile Durkheim defines religion as, “a unified system of beliefs and practices related to sacred things, that is to say things that are set apart and forbidden – beliefs and practices which unite one single moral community called a church all those who adhere to them” (Durkheim, 1915). Frazer (1890) defines religion as, the propitiation or conciliation of powers superior to man which are believed to direct and control the course of nature and of human life. What is clear from all these definitions is the stress on beliefs and practices that have to do with the supernatural. The various definitions available indicate that religion is a set of ideas, beliefs, practices or rituals possessed by a group of people and directed towards supernatural forces in order to influence or to benefit human existence. These supernatural forces can believed to found in the Almighty God, ancestors, gods, witchcraft, spirits, evil forces believed to be found in people, rivers, seas, forests, etc. that people believe have supernatural powers to influence human action Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 5  Topic Two: Sociological and Anthropological Interest in Religion Anthropologists and sociologists are interested in religion because: Religion is one of the social institutions of society just like the family, politics and what have you, Anthropologists and sociologists are interested in the social significance of religion, that is, what religion does for society and its members. They are not so much interested in the claims of religion about the life after death. Because as scientists they cannot prove that Rather they want to ask what functions (manifest and latent) religion performs for society, just as they would ask what functions do the family and politics perform for society. Sociologists and anthropologists are interested in explaining human behaviour in different times and societies, in what makes for conformity and deviance, social order and change and the overall functioning of human societies. In all these matters religion plays a crucial role as indicated by functions of religion below. Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 6  Topic Three: Theories of Religion There are many theories to explain the existence of religion. Some are: Animism developed by Edward Burnett Tylor (1871/1957). According to Tylor, this is the earliest religion that our ancestors developed as a result of their inability to explain dreams, trances and death so they concluded that humans have two entities: the body and soul. During dreams the soul gets the chance to express itself and during death, the should permanently leaves the body. Religion according to Tylor developed from Polytheisim (the belief in multiple gods) to monotheism (belief in one most powerful deity). According to Tylor religion is often used to explain things that people don’t understand so once science offers more and better understanding for things, religion would decline—demystification and secularization of the world Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 7  Topic Three: Theories of Religion (cont’d) One other theories are: Muller: Close Tylor’s argument is Muller’s view that the mysterious and baffling nature of life made humans to acknowledge that there must be some forces or powers that are greater than their ability. Durkheim: The Sacred and the Profane, Totemism as the simplest form of religious Durkheim: Social Function of Religion: Social solidarity Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 8  Topic Four: Functions of Religion There are many functions of religion. The major ones are: Religion maintains social order Religion reduces of anxiety Religion provide cognitive balance, resolves ambiguities and provides explanations for things we cannot understand Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 9  Conclusion In this session: we have provided a definition of religion. we noted that religion is found in all societies but in different forms hence we have religious diversity in the world we have explained that sociologists and anthropologists are interested in studying religion not because of its truthfulness or otherwise but because of its social significance we have learnt two theories of religion: theory of animism and theory of the sacred and profane we noted three major functions of Religion: social order maintenance, anxiety control and cognitive balance Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 10  SOCI 102/122 Diversity of Peoples and Cultures Session 8 –RELIGION AND THE SUPERNATURAL Lecturer: Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, UG Contact Information: [email protected] College of Education School of Continuing and Distance Education 2014/2015 – 2016/2017  Session Overview Introduction In the previous session we noted that religion is not just an institution that serves individual needs but it also serves society as a social control mechanism, etc. In this session, we explore African traditional Religion, and the relationship between witchcraft, magic, sorcery, divination. We also explore the relation between religion and social rituals such as festivals to illustrate the how religion contributes to social solidarity. Objectives At the end of the session, the student will be able to: Traditional African Region or Ancestor Veneration Distinguish what is witchcraft, magic and sorcery and Examine beliefs in lesser gods and divination Religion, Festivals and Social Solidarity Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 2  Session Outline The key topics to be covered in this session are as follows: Topic One : Traditional African Religion and Ancestor Worship Topic Two: Nature of Smaller Gods Topic Three: Witchcraft, magic, sorcery and divination Topic Four : Religion, Rituals, Festival and Social Solidarity Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 3  Reading List Assimeng, M. (1999), Social Structure of Ghana, Tema, Ghana Publishing Corporation. Kottak, C. P. (2004), Cultural Anthropology, Boston, McGraw Hill Corporation. Kottak, C. P. (2004), Anthropology: The Exploration of Human Diversity, Boston, McGraw Hill Corporation. Nolan, P. & G. Lenski, (2004 or any of the newer editions), Human Societies: An introduction to macrosociology, Boulder Paradigm Publishers. Nukunya, G. K. (2006), Tradition and change in Ghana: An introduction to sociology, Accra, Ghana University Press. Sanderson, S. K. & A. S. Alderson (2005 or its newer editions), World societies: the evolution of human life, Boston, Pearson Education Inc. Crapo R. H. (2002 or newer editions) Cultural Anthropology: Understanding Ourselves & Other, Boston, McGraw Hill. Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 4  Topic One:Traditional African Religion and Ancestor Worship There is the concept of High or Supreme God in Traditional African Religion long before the advent of Christianity and Islam. The Supreme Being is believed to have created the universe and all the things therein and also has the greatest power. Names of the Supreme Being in local languages (give examples) and note that they all allude to the fact that God is the supreme one Although the Supreme God is socially and culturally acknowledged he is not the object of any organized worship with priesthood, temples, shrines or congregations The Supreme God can be worshiped though the ancestors—hence the phenomenon of ancestor veneration Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 5  Topic One:Traditional African Religion and Ancestor Worship (cont’d) It is the belief of many Africans that God was with humans on earth but later departed to the sky because of the disturbances and noises on earth caused mainly by women. But God has representatives on earth which are the smaller gods which may be specialized gods e.g. gods of war, gods of fertility, earthly gods, river gods, etc. These gods are sometimes referred to as nature gods. These gods have their priests and can be called upon in time of need Thus beside the Supreme God, there are smaller gods Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 6  Nature of Smaller Gods The smaller gods operate within shrines managed by priests and priestesses with their followers or believers. As already indicated they are also called the nature gods because they are believed to live in nature objects like rivers, ponds, forests, rocks and the sea. It is not these objects per se which people worship but rather the spirits that are believed to reside in them. Nature gods are believed not to have the ultimate powers but are depended on and controlled by the Supreme God who is the source of their powers. Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 7  Topic Three: Witchcraft, Magic , Sorcery and Divination Witchcraft is the belief that some supernatural powers exist that people can use for certain purposes, usually to hurt others. Witchcraft like the ancestral spirits is feared but one important difference between the two supernatural forces is that the ancestral spirits are honoured and respected whereas witchcraft is not. Witchcraft is believed to be mostly used to cause damage hence the fear and disrespect associated with it. Witches are persons, male or female, who are believed to possess inherent supernatural powers which they use (knowingly or otherwise) to harm others or to benefit themselves. However, most witches are said to be women. Explanations of Witchcraft: Witchcraft accusation derive from hatred, jealousy, suspicion, envy, mistrust, misunderstanding and fear all deriving from social relationships Witchcraft is social levelling mechanism Magicians and sorcerers seem to do the same thing. The difference, however, is that magic refers to ‘good magic’ and sorcery refers to ‘bad magic’. In effect sorcery is usually reserved for the anti-social use of magic. Sorcery is therefore the manipulation of physical objects to effect evil supernatural end. Throughout West Africa, sorcery is popularly known as juju. Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 8  Topic Three: Witchcraft, magic , orcery and divination (cont’d) Magicians and sorcerers offer consultancy services openly to those who need them. Those who have job interviews to attend go to them for assistance. Football teams consult magicians to ensure favourable outcomes from football games. People who need promotions at their workplaces, success in politics, office, and those who want to revenge or avenge a bad treatment also consult them. Others also consult them for protection against accidents and spiritual attacks. Magic exists in cultures with diverse religious beliefs. It can be seen in cultures that practice animism, ancestor worship, polytheism, monotheism and some Ghanaians sometimes consult magicians, in spite of condemnations of traditional religious practices. Divination is the manipulation of certain special objects with the hope that the future can be told or the unknown can be discovered. Divination ranges between very simple systems and extremely complex systems. When people want to inquire into the causes of their misfortunes or illnesses, look for lost property, know what the future holds for them or how they can be successful they resort to divination. The methods of divination may include examining the entrails of animals for unusual signs, reading the movement or flight direction of ants or birds, reading images from water, reading or interpreting lines on people’s hands, reading astrological signs or spreading cards, beads, cowries and killing animals and determining the final position they take when they die, etc. Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 9  Topic Four:Religion, Festival and Social Solidarity Social or collective rituals also known as festivals are ways through which diverse cultures manifest their beliefs associated with religion and the supernatural. Festivals are usually associated with ritual practices, drumming, dancing and eating. Underlying all these activities are some elements of religion. In many parts of Africa, festivals reveal the belief that there is a relationship between the living and their ancestors, the Supreme Being and lesser gods. Festivals may be performed by a group to remember some special social event in their history. E.g. in Ghana the Ga observes Homowo to remember the period when they were experienced a severe hunger and their gods and ancestors intervened by giving them a bumper harvest. Others examples of festivals in Ghana are Ohum for the Akyem, and Yam for the people of Peki in the Volta Region. Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 10  Topic Four:Religion, Festival and Social Solidarity (cont’d) In Ghana, there are other festivals celebrated to remember certain events, like an epidemic, that occurred in the ethnic group’s history. The epidemic might have killed a lot of them at the time. Examples of such festivals are the Asafotufiam festival of the people of Ada and Dayibakaka festival of the people of Anlo. Among the Ga, Akan and Anlo-Ewe there is a belief about twins. The Anlo-Ewe believes that failure to perform this ritual for the twins can mean disaster to the parents and also the twins. Rituals are performed to make the twins identify themselves fully with human life. By so doing the twins are believed to have been separated from the supernatural forces. This ritual is called alototro and is solely for the twins whilst there is another one called ewewowo for the parents of the twins. The ewewowo is meant to restore the parents to normalcy since it is believed that they went through an unusual experience from pregnancy to delivery of the twins. The above functions are manifest. When people engage in such festivals or social rituals the re-affirm themselves as one group with similar values and identity hence region and festivals as well as social and national rituals are occasion f For social integration and solidarity Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 11  Conclusion In this session, we have examined: The nature of African Traditional Religion, The relationship between witchcraft, magic, sorcery, divination and We noted that they are all aspects of the supernatural and have religious dimensions and The rituals associated with religion and festivals are mechanisms through which society creates solidarity or social cohesiveness among its members. Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 12  SOCI 102/122 Diversity of Peoples and Cultures SESSION 9:COLONIALISM AND DEVELOPMENT Lecturer: Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, UG Contact Information: [email protected] College of Education School of Continuing and Distance Education 2014/2015 – 2016/2017  Session Overview Introduction One factor that has been momentous in the historical evolution of most nations, to be precise, the Third World which oftentimes is referred to as developing nations/countries (made up of Africa, Latin America and Asian countries) is colonialism. Colonialism is often times associated with imperialism can be defined as the direct occupation and domination of a people by other nations. Almost all countries and peoples in the developing world have in their history been colonised by one European nation or the other. The major imperial powers have been Britain, France, The Netherlands, Belgium, among others. Colonialism therefore has great consequences, often times negative, for transformation and development of the colonised people and their societies. In this session, we focus on colonialism and its implications for development of other societies. Objectives At the end of the session, the student will be able to: define colonialism and imperialism account for the reasons for colonialism distinguish between two major colonial administrative policies Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 2  Session Outline In this session we will define colonialism and Imperialism account for the reasons for colonialism distinguish between two major colonial administrative policies Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 3  Reading List Assimeng, M. (1999), Social Structure of Ghana, Tema, Ghana Publishing Corporation. Kottak, C. P. (2004), Cultural Anthropology, Boston, McGraw Hill Corporation. Kottak, C. P. (2004), Anthropology: The Exploration of Human Diversity, Boston, McGraw Hill Corporation. Nolan, P. & G. Lenski, (2004 or any of the newer editions), Human Societies: An introduction to macrosociology, Boulder Paradigm Publishers. Nukunya, G. K. (2006), Tradition and change in Ghana: An introduction to sociology, Accra, Ghana University Press. Sanderson, S. K. & A. S. Alderson (2005 or its newer editions), World societies: the evolution of human life, Boston, Pearson Education Inc. Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 4  Topic One: Definition of Colonialism and Imperialism Colonialism and Imperialism are very close in meaning. We can define colonialism as referring to the political, social, economic and cultural domination of a territory and its people by a foreign power over an extended period of time. All African countries with the exception of Ethiopia and Liberia have once been colonized. The colonial powers have been mainly Britain, France, Germany, Spain, and Portugal. Imperialism refers to a policy of extending the rule of a nation or empire such as the British empire over foreign nations and of taking and holding foreign nations. Most powerful nations such as US, France, Britain, are often described as imperialistic because they are seen as always acting in ways to dominate other nations Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 5  Topic Two: Reasons for Colonialism The reasons for colonialism are varied. Three major reasons are: The search by European nations for resources for the purpose of industrialization The search for markets for European manufactured products The search for state glory and national pride Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 6  Topic Three: British and French Colonialism The British adopted mainly the policy of Indirect Rule. This means that they governed the colonized people through their leaders and the existing political structures. The French adopted direct rule and also assimilation policies. This means that the French, unlike the British imposed new forms of governing structures on the colonized people and also sought to assimilate them into French society. France is also said to have “regarded” her colonies as extension of France abroad. Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 7  Conclusion In these session we have learnt to Define colonialism and imperialism and also noted that the two concepts are closely related Give reasons for colonialism: the search for resources and markets by Europeans Distinguish between two major colonial administrative policies: indirect rule practiced by the British and direct rule and assimilation policies practiced the French Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 8  SOCI 102/122 Diversity of Peoples and Cultures Session 10 –COLONIALISM AND DEVELOPMENT (CONT’D) Lecturer: Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, UG Contact Information: [email protected] College of Education School of Continuing and Distance Education 2014/2015 – 2016/2017  Session Overview Introduction In this session, we continue to discuss on colonialism and its consequences for the colonised people and their societies. We explore the psychological, social economic and political consequences of colonialism for the developing world as well as its global implications. Objectives At the end of the session, the student will be able to: explain the psychological effects of colonialism on the colonised people Explain the socio-economic effects of colonialism on the colonies Explain the global implications of colonialism and the concept of Neocolonialism Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 2  Session Outline The session is divided into two topics. They are: Topic One: Impact of Colonialism Topic Two: Global Exploitation and Neo-Colonialism Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 3  Reading List Assimeng, M. (1999), Social Structure of Ghana, Tema, Ghana Publishing Corporation. Kottak, C. P. (2004), Cultural Anthropology, Boston, McGraw Hill Corporation. Kottak, C. P. (2004), Anthropology: The Exploration of Human Diversity, Boston, McGraw Hill Corporation. Nolan, P. & G. Lenski, (2004 or any of the newer editions), Human Societies: An introduction to macrosociology, Boulder Paradigm Publishers. Nukunya, G. K. (2006), Tradition and change in Ghana: An introduction to sociology, Accra, Ghana University Press. Sanderson, S. K. & A. S. Alderson (2005 or its newer editions), World societies: the evolution of human life, Boston, Pearson Education Inc. Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 4  Topic one: Impact of Colonialism Colonialism brought together under one colonial state many diverse ethnic groups which hitherto existed as relatively autonomous of each other. For example, in Ghana we have the Asante, the Fante, the Ga, the Ewe, the Dagomba, etc. together to form a nation. Consider Nigeria, Sudan, Uganda, in similar terms and identify their ethnic compositions Colonialism brought about the imposition of foreign language, Christian religion and western culture Colonialism created a state machinery for administering the colonies and even the independent nations in modern times. In order to justify colonialism and hide its main objectives of exploiting the colonized peoples’ resources and using them as markets for manufactured goods from Europe, the colonial masters said they were on a civilizing mission. In this regard, the British proclaimed the “white man’s burden” and France “mission civilisatrice” that they were on civilizing mission Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 5  Topic one: Impact of Colonialism (cont’d) In order to justify colonialism, the colonial powers defined the colonized people as uncivilized, barbaric, savages and only by adopting the colonial masters’ language, religion, values, and indeed the total way of life could they be considered as civilized and modern Africans, for example, were taught to speak the colonialist language, English, French, Portuguese, etc. and so followed the subtle introduction of western ideas, norms, values, etc. to African and consequently, the gradual undermining of Africans ways of life Africans were also taught to adopt Christianity and were to reject their traditional modes of religion Colonialism deprived the colonized people of their resources: gold , diamond, nickel, copper, iron, uranium, bauxite, timber, etc. These resources were taken away and used to developed Europe while impoverishing Africa and holding its material progress back. Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 6  Topic one: Impact of Colonialism (cont’d) In some parts of Africa, Africans lost fertile agricultural lands to the colonial masters or their lands were forcefully taken away from them as happened in many countries in Eastern and Southern Africa. In these parts of Africa, Europeans decided to stay for ever. For example South Africa, Namibia, Kenya, Zimbabwe, etc. and so dispossessed Africans of their lands and resources. Colonialism converted African countries into producers of raw materials (cocoa, coffee, groundnuts, sisal, tea, etc.) and consumers of Europeans/Western manufactured goods and technologies. There was negative psychological impacts of colonialism on Africans. Because Africans were considered as uncivilized and were in need civilization, and because they were conquered and colonized, Europeans and for that matter the whole of the white race and people of the lighter skin across the whole world often assume feelings of superiority over Africans The relegate Africans to inferior status—a phenomenon that continues to be the basis of racism or racial discrimination and mental oppression that Africans and people of African descent continue to suffer in our contemporary time. Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 7  Topic one: Impact of Colonialism (cont’d) Colonialism undermined, if not blocked, Africa’s own internal evolution and development Colonialism initiated and accelerated on a large scale interactions among diverse groups and societies in the world and began incorporating them into a global economy whose ramifications have accelerated in recent years and brought about the concept of globalization. Colonialism changed the entire face many groups, societies and cultures such that today all societies no longer exist in their pure unadulterated versions Colonialism created and continues to create cultural imperialism Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 8  Topic Two: Global Exploitation and Neocolonialism Even though many groups or colonies have attained independence, the colonial masters and the rich nations of this world, continue to exert control over them in many areas. They continue to extract resources and wealth from the poor nations through more and more enlightened and subtle ways. For example, the rich nations would claim that they help the poor nations to develop but the whole exercise of development is mainly for their own benefit. Colonialism also brought the colonized world into an emerging global capitalist world and also make them dependent to the developed, rich mainly capitalist, world. Many countries are now formally independent but in reality they are still colonized in a new way hence the concept of neo-colonialism introduced by Kwame Nkrumah to describe this new situation. Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 9  Conclusion In this session, We explored the psychological, socio-economic and political consequences of colonialism for the developing world and its citizens We noted that colonialism integrated the colonies into a global world economy in which (even though they are independent) they play only a subordinate role We explored the global implications of colonialism and the new forms of colonialism or Neo-colonialism Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 10  SOCI 102/122 Diversity of Peoples and Cultures Session 11 – METHODS OF ANTHROPOLOGICAL INQUIRY Lecturer: Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, UG Contact Information: [email protected] College of Education School of Continuing and Distance Education 2014/2015 – 2016/2017  Session Overview Introduction In one sense the course Diversity of Peoples and Cultures can be regarded an introduction to a sub-discipline of Sociology called Social Anthropology, also known as Cultural Anthropology. Therefore, in this final two sessions we want to introduce you to Methods of Anthropological Inquiry. There are many methods which anthropologists use to study different cultures, communities and societies. In studying other peoples who are usually not part of us and our world, we must make sure that we respect them and their views; we don’t violate their world, their sacred places; we tell the truth about them, we protect them from harm, and we leave them with goodwill that others can also come and study them. These considerations are captured under the term ethical issues. As researchers we need to understand these issues. Goals and Objectives At the end of the session, the student will be able to: explain why cultural anthropologists (American) or social anthropologists (British) and indeed social scientists have to conduct research what specific methods cultural and social anthropologists adopt in the field Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 2  Session Outline The key topics to be covered in the session are as follows: Topic One: Social and Cultural Anthropologists and Research Topic Two : The Field Work Topic Three: Methods of Gathering Data in the Field Topic Four: Anthropological Approaches to Analyzing Culture Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 3  Reading List Assimeng, M. (1999), Social Structure of Ghana, Tema, Ghana Publishing Corporation. Kottak, C. P. (2004), Cultural Anthropology, Boston, McGraw Hill Corporation. Kottak, C. P. (2004), Anthropology: The Exploration of Human Diversity, Boston, McGraw Hill Corporation. Nolan, P. & G. Lenski, (2004 or any of the newer editions), Human Societies: An introduction to macrosociology, Boulder Paradigm Publishers. Nukunya, G. K. (2006), Tradition and change in Ghana: An introduction to sociology, Accra, Ghana University Press. Sanderson, S. K. & A. S. Alderson (2005 or its newer editions), World societies: the evolution of human life, Boston, Pearson Education Inc. Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 4  Topic One: Social and Cultural Anthropologists and Research Research on other people and cultures is a central activity of all cultural or social anthropologists In order to understand how diversify peoples and cultures are, it is important to have fieldwork through which researchers studies in detail holistically and comparatively different peoples and cultures. Because they have traditionally been interested in earlier forms of society, that is, simple or traditional societies, social and cultural anthropologists have built distinctive research methods. These methods are mainly fieldwork and the comparative method. In recent times, however, they also do surveys as they enter into the study of modern and large-scale societies, including urban environments. It is also important that the studies are compared cross-culturally to bring similarities and differences. Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 5  Topic Two: The Fieldwork The Fieldwork is the basic tool anthropologists irrespective of specializations, employ to undertake their studies. Fieldwork is a study that involves firsthand detailed observation, in a natural setting of whatever is under investigation: people and cultures, etc. Because of this, field work takes a relatively long time to accomplish. Traditionally, anthropological researchers spend many years on the field—two to four years on the field, learning the languages and cultures of the people to be able to communicate and understand them firsthand. The report from such detailed investigation is called an ethnography and the researchers are called ethnographers. Fieldwork also involves cross-cultural comparison: that is, the examination of the varied ways in which some aspect of human life or culture of a people under investigation is viewed or treated in other cultures Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 6  Topic Three: Methods of Gathering Data in the Field The specific methods for gathering data during the fieldwork include: Observation Participant Observation Conversation Interviewing Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 7  Topic Three: Methods of Gathering Data in the Field Survey Research (cont’d) The other methods for gathering data in the field are: Genealogical Method Life Histories Key Cultural Consultants Longitudinal Research Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 8  Topic Four: Anthropological Approaches to Analyzing Culture The main goal of the ethnographer is to discover and describe local beliefs and perceptions of other societies. In this endeavour, the researcher analyzes his or her study from two comparative angles. The etic and emic perspectives Etic perspective: This is the research approach in which the ethnographer’s rather than the locals’ explanations, categories and criteria, are used for analyzing the culture and life of the people being studied (etic: the scientist’s perspective) Emic perspective: This is the opposite of the Etic perspective. It is the research approach that focuses on the interpretations, explanations and criteria of the local people (the local people’s perspective). Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 9  Conclusion In this session you have: Learnt about the importance of research in other cultures to social and cultural anthropologists; Learnt about the Field Work as the main research approach of these scientists; Leant a wide range of methods of gathering data in the field Distinguish between emic and etic perspectives for analyzing and interpreting cultures and practices Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 10  SOCI 102/122 Diversity of Peoples and Cultures Session 12 –METHODS OF ANTHROPOLOGICAL INQUIRY (CONT’D) Lecturer: Dr. Dan-Bright S.Dzorgbo, UG Contact Information: [email protected] College of Education School of Continuing and Distance Education 2014/2015 – 2016/2017  Session Overview Introduction This session is a continuation of the preceding one. We noted in the previous session that in studying other peoples with different cultures, social scientists usually adopt the fieldwork method. This is because they deal with small, simple or traditional societies. However, in recent times, anthropologists are studying large-scale societies and conducting research in urban environments and so are increasingly using the survey method as well. In this session we discuss the survey method. Also one basic injunction in research is that: we must not in any way harm the people we study. This brings to the fore ethical issues that researchers must address. In this session, we want to examine these issues in greater detail. Objectives At the end of the session, the student will be able to: Explain the survey method Explain what ethical issues in research mean Explain how researchers address ethical issues Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 2  Session Outline The key topics to be covered in the session are as follows: Topic One: The Survey Research Topic Two: Ethical issues in research Topic Three: How researchers address ethical issues Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 3  Reading List Assimeng, M. (1999), Social Structure of Ghana, Tema, Ghana Publishing Corporation. Kottak, C. P. (2004), Cultural Anthropology, Boston, McGraw Hill Corporation. Kottak, C. P. (2004), Anthropology: The Exploration of Human Diversity, Boston, McGraw Hill Corporation. Nolan, P. & G. Lenski, (2004 or any of the newer editions), Human Societies: An introduction to macrosociology, Boulder Paradigm Publishers. Nukunya, G. K. (2006), Tradition and change in Ghana: An introduction to sociology, Accra, Ghana University Press. Sanderson, S. K. & A. S. Alderson (2005 or its newer editions), World societies: the evolution of human life, Boston, Pearson Education Inc. Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 4  Topic One: The Survey Research y The gathering of the same information from a large number of individuals who are chosen to be representative of a larger population of which they are part. Survey data, unlike data from fieldwork, are usually collected systematically by means of written questionnaires that can either be sent to individuals to fill out themselves, or fill out by interviewers who visit them personally or by other means such as telephone interviewing or the use of internet or social media platforms Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 5  Topic Two: Ethical Issues in Research When social scientists (and indeed natural scientists as well) undertake studies on people, communities and societies, one problem that comes to the fore is that their research usually have the potential to harm people or subjects. Should scientists be allowed to harm people, species and materials they study the long-term consequence is that nobody would volunteer for research and we would not be able conduct research in the future