Unit 2 Study Notes PDF

Unit 2 Wednesday, September 18, 2024 2:04 PM GO OVER LEARNING OBJECTIVES I. Scientific Advances and World Progress 1. Scientific research as a major driver of progress: ○ Dramatic changes in the past century primarily due to scientific findings ○ Examples: modern medicine, electro...

Unit 2 Wednesday, September 18, 2024 2:04 PM GO OVER LEARNING OBJECTIVES I. Scientific Advances and World Progress 1. Scientific research as a major driver of progress: ○ Dramatic changes in the past century primarily due to scientific findings ○ Examples: modern medicine, electronics, automobiles, jets, birth control 2. Notable scientists who saved millions of lives: ○ Edward Jenner: § "Father of immunology" § Pioneered vaccinations, leading to smallpox eradication § His work led to vaccines for measles, pertussis, diphtheria, tetanus, typhoid, cholera, polio, hepatitis ○ Fritz Haber and Norman Borlaug: § Created the "Green Revolution" § Developed hybrid agricultural crops and synthetic fertilizer § Saved over a billion lives by increasing food production capabilities 3. Major changes in the past century due to science: ○ Transportation: from horseback to cars and jets ○ Communication: radios, televisions, mobile phones (75% of world population has access) ○ Medicine: antibiotics, artificial hearts, increased life expectancy (47 years in 1900 to 79 years in 2010) ○ Technology: refrigeration, electricity (84% of households) ○ Nutrition: substantial drop in global hunger and malnutrition ○ Education: Rise in average IQ levels due to better nutrition and schooling II. What Is Science? 1. Definition: Use of systematic observation to acquire knowledge ○ Contrasts with ancient belief in magical or supernatural explanations 2. Key characteristics: a. Systematic observation: ○ Core of scientific method ○ Organized and controlled observations ○ Often involves measurement and recording  1. Definition: Use of systematic observation to acquire knowledge ○ Contrasts with ancient belief in magical or supernatural explanations 2. Key characteristics: a. Systematic observation: ○ Core of scientific method ○ Organized and controlled observations ○ Often involves measurement and recording ○ Systematic variation of conditions to understand phenomena b. Testable hypotheses: ○ Observations lead to hypotheses that can be tested ○ Example: comparing burning speeds of different types of candles c. Democratic process: ○ Open discussions and debates about observations and theories ○ Skepticism encouraged ○ Publication of competing findings to determine best data d. Cumulative knowledge: ○ Building on discoveries of earlier scientists ○ Each generation of scientists knows more than the previous III. Psychology as a Science 1. Challenges: ○ Many psychological phenomena not directly observable (e.g., depression, intelligence, prejudice) ○ Skepticism about psychology's scientific status 2. Early focus on behavior: ○ Used observable behavior to infer internal states ○ Example: observing friendly vs. shy behaviors to study personality 3. Pioneers: ○ Francis Galton: § Cousin of Charles Darwin § Developed self-report questionnaires § Conducted early studies on individual differences (e.g., color discrimination, distance judgment) § Pioneered twin studies to explore nature vs. nurture 4. Modern approaches (Measuring Happiness) ○ Multiple methods: § Self-report measures § Peer report measures § Memory measures § Biological measures (e.g., cortisol samples, fMRI brain scans) ○ More sophisticated study designs and statistical analyses ○ Example of studying happiness: § Self-report scales § Peer reports from friends and family § Memory recall tasks § Biological markers (e.g., cortisol levels, left pre-frontal cortex activity)  ○ More sophisticated study designs and statistical analyses ○ Example of studying happiness: § Self-report scales § Peer reports from friends and family § Memory recall tasks § Biological markers (e.g., cortisol levels, left pre-frontal cortex activity) 5. Current state of psychological science: ○ Young science (about 150 years old) ○ Most major findings in the last 60 years ○ Ongoing development and refinement of methods IV. Usefulness of Psychological Science 1. Interventions for better living: ○ Research on therapy effectiveness ○ Example: Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) for depression and anxiety 2. Organizational psychology improvements: ○ Interventions for increased productivity and job satisfaction 3. Human factors engineering: ○ Improving product safety and utility ○ Example: Alphonse Chapanis's redesign of aircraft cockpit controls 4. Forensic applications: ○ Enhancing validity of courtroom decisions ○ Example: Elizabeth Loftus's research on eyewitness testimony and memory reliability 5. Ongoing research: ○ Demonstrable successes, but much more to be learned V. Ethics of Scientific Psychology 1. Special considerations for human participants: ○ Need to guard against potential psychological harm 2. Code of ethics for research: a. Informed consent: ○ Participants should know they're involved in research ○ Understanding of what will happen during the study ○ Free choice to participate b. Confidentiality: ○ Protection of participants' personal information c. Privacy: ○ No observations in private spaces without consent ○ No seeking confidential information without consent d. Benefits vs. risks assessment: ○ Weighing potential benefits against risks to participants ○ Exposure to risk only with full understanding and clear benefits e. Deception and debriefing: ○ Limited use of deception to prevent unnatural behavior modification  ○ No seeking confidential information without consent d. Benefits vs. risks assessment: ○ Weighing potential benefits against risks to participants ○ Exposure to risk only with full understanding and clear benefits e. Deception and debriefing: ○ Limited use of deception to prevent unnatural behavior modification ○ Mandatory debriefing to educate participants about the true nature of the study VI. Reasons to Learn About Scientific Psychology 1. Understand ourselves and others: ○ Gain insight into human behavior and mental processes 2. Influence others effectively: ○ Apply psychological principles in parenting, leadership, etc. 3. Help others and improve the world: ○ Use psychological knowledge in therapy, social work, etc. 4. Develop professional skills: ○ Prepare for careers in psychology and related fields 5. Evaluate research claims: ○ Develop critical thinking skills to assess psychological studies and findings 6. Personal interest and enjoyment: ○ Study psychology for its inherent fascination and intellectual challenge Psychology Research Methods Study Notes I. Types of Research Designs A. Experimental Research Researchers manipulate independent variable and observe effects on dependent variable Key features: 1. Random assignment to conditions 2. Manipulation of independent variable 3. Measurement of dependent variable Allows for causal inferences Example: Dunn's study on spending money on others vs. self and happiness B. Correlational Research Researchers observe relationships between variables without manipulation Key features: 1. Measure two variables 2. Determine strength and direction of relationship 3. Cannot infer causation Example: Relationship between income spent on others and happiness  Researchers observe relationships between variables without manipulation Key features: 1. Measure two variables 2. Determine strength and direction of relationship 3. Cannot infer causation Example: Relationship between income spent on others and happiness C. Quasi-Experimental Designs Similar to experimental, but without random assignment Uses existing group memberships Causal inference is more difficult Example: Studying effects of marriage on happiness D. Qualitative Designs 1. Participant Observation ○ Researcher embeds in a group to study dynamics ○ Example: Festinger's study of a cult 2. Case Studies ○ Intensive examination of specific individuals or contexts ○ Useful for rare conditions or unique cases ○ Example: Brain injury studies 3. Narrative Analysis ○ Study of stories and personal accounts ○ Analyzes themes, structure, and dialogue E. Longitudinal Studies Track the same people over time Can last weeks, months, or years Example: 20-year study of Germans and marriage happiness F. Surveys Gather information using questionnaires or internet Can reach large numbers of participants at low cost Can be used for both correlational and experimental research II. Important Concepts in Research Design A. Variables Independent Variable: Manipulated by researcher Dependent Variable: Measured outcome B. Random Assignment Crucial for experiments Helps ensure groups are equivalent on average C. Confounds Factors that undermine causal inferences Examples: Placebo effect, participant demand, experimenter expectations D. Double-Blind Procedure  Helps ensure groups are equivalent on average C. Confounds Factors that undermine causal inferences Examples: Placebo effect, participant demand, experimenter expectations D. Double-Blind Procedure Neither participant nor experimenter knows participant's condition Helps prevent confounds E. Correlation Coefficient (r) Measures strength and direction of relationship between variables Ranges from -1 to +1 Positive: Variables move in same direction Negative: Variables move in opposite directions Strength: Absolute value of r (closer to 1 = stronger) F. Causation vs. Correlation Correlation does not imply causation Third variable problem: Hidden factor may cause both observed variables III. Choosing a Research Method Factors to consider: 1. Research question appropriateness 2. Resource availability (time, money) 3. Ethical considerations 4. Practical constraints IV. Importance of Understanding Research Methods Crucial for critically evaluating reported research Helps in problem-solving across various domains Enables informed consumption of scientific information