Psychology Notes PDF
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These notes provide an overview of key concepts in psychology, including the differences between empirical and ordinary knowing, characteristics of science and pseudoscience, goals of scientific research, and the application of research methods in psychology, emphasizing critical thinking; it includes various characteristics of good theories, operationalization of variables in measurable terms, analysis of research designs, and ethical considerations in research.
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Empirical vs. Ordinary Knowing Empirical Knowing: Based on systematic observation, evidence, and experimentation (e.g., science). Ordinary Knowing: Involves subjective methods like: ○ Personal Experience/Observations ○ Intuition ○ Authority (accepting informa...
Empirical vs. Ordinary Knowing Empirical Knowing: Based on systematic observation, evidence, and experimentation (e.g., science). Ordinary Knowing: Involves subjective methods like: ○ Personal Experience/Observations ○ Intuition ○ Authority (accepting information because it comes from a credible source) ○ Consensus (what most people agree on) ○ Logical Speculation/Analysis Science vs. Pseudoscience Science Characteristics: ○ Evidence-based ○ Falsifiable ○ Systematic and testable Pseudoscience Characteristics: ○ Lacks falsifiability ○ Relies on anecdotal evidence ○ Resistant to change despite new evidence ○ Overemphasizes confirmation over refutation Goals of Science 1. Describe Behavior: Observing and cataloging behavior patterns. 2. Predict Behavior: Identifying conditions under which behaviors are likely to occur. 3. Identify Causes of Behavior: Establishing cause-and-effect relationships. 4. Understand/Explain Behavior: Explaining underlying mechanisms and theories. Psychology as a Science Necessary: Psychology uses empirical methods and systematic approaches. Sufficient: It meets the criteria for a science when applying rigorous methodology. Criterion for Causation: Requires: 1. Temporal precedence 2. Covariation of cause and effect 3. Elimination of alternative explanations Steps of Research 1. Hypothesis Formation 2. Characteristics of Good Theories: ○ Comprehensive ○ Heuristic (inspires new research) ○ Testable ○ Parsimonious (simple and concise) ○ Integrative 3. Operationalization: Defining variables in measurable terms. 4. Variables: ○ Independent Variable (IV): Manipulated ○ Dependent Variable (DV): Measured 5. Research Design: ○ Experiment: Manipulation and control ○ Correlation: Relationship between variables ○ Case Study: In-depth analysis of a single case Validity in Research Reliability: Consistency of results. Types of Validity: ○ Internal Validity: Causality within the study. ○ External Validity: Generalizability to real-world settings. ○ Construct Validity: Accuracy of measurement. ○ Threats: Extraneous Variables Design flaws (e.g., history, maturation, testing effects). APA Ethics Code General Principles: Ethical guidelines for research conduct. Standards (Section 8): Specifics for research and publication (e.g., informed consent, avoiding plagiarism). APA Style Refer to Purdue OWL or Kuther Chapter 8 for details on citation formats. Key Readings 1. Stanovich (2019): Focuses on scientific thinking in psychology. ○ Chapters to emphasize: 1: Distinction between science and folk wisdom. 2: Falsifiability of theories. 3: Measurement reliability and validity. 4: Issues with testimonials and pseudoscience. 6-7: Experimental design and control. 9: Summative concepts in scientific psychology. 11: Role of chance in psychology. 2. Kuther (2020): ○ Chapter 1: Foundational knowledge for psychology students.
