4.4-4.5 Textbook PDF

Topic 4.4 America on the World Stage The war has renewed and reinstated the national feelings and character which the Revolution had given, and which were daily lessened.... I hope the permanency of the Union is thereby better secured. Secretary of...

Topic 4.4 America on the World Stage The war has renewed and reinstated the national feelings and character which the Revolution had given, and which were daily lessened.... I hope the permanency of the Union is thereby better secured. Secretary of the Treasury Albert Gallatin, 1816 Learning Objective: Explain how and why American foreign policy developed over time. F rom their founding as colonies to their fight for independence, the United States was strongly influenced by the actions of other nations. Even President Washington had to deal with foreign “entanglements” (see Topic 3.10) likely leading to his warning against “permanent alliances” in foreign affairs. Jefferson’s Foreign Policy President Jefferson brought considerable experience in dealing with foreign affairs. He had served as a foreign minister in Europe and secretary of state prior to his election in 1800. This experience led to success with the Louisiana Purchase but would be challenged by numerous other foreign affairs questions. Difficulties Abroad As a matter of policy and principle, Jefferson tried to avoid war. Rejecting permanent alliances, he sought to maintain U.S. neutrality despite increasing provocations from both France and Britain during the Napoleonic wars. Barbary Pirates The first major challenge to Jefferson’s foreign policy came not from a major European power but from the piracy practiced by the Barbary states on the North African coast. To protect U.S. merchant ships from being seized by Barbary pirates, Presidents Washington and Adams had reluctantly agreed to pay tribute to the Barbary governments. The ruler of Tripoli demanded a higher sum in tribute from Jefferson. Refusing to pay, Jefferson sent a small fleet of the U.S. Navy to the Mediterranean. Sporadic fighting with Tripoli lasted for four years (1801–1805). Although the American navy did not achieve a decisive victory, it did gain some respect and offered a measure of protection to U.S. vessels trading in Mediterranean waters. Challenges to U.S. Neutrality Meanwhile, the Napoleonic wars continued to dominate the politics of Europe—and to shape the commercial economy of 182 UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION the United States. The two principal belligerents, France and Britain, attempted naval blockades of enemy ports. They regularly seized the ships of neutral nations and confiscated their cargoes. The chief offender from the U.S. point of view was Britain, since its navy dominated the Atlantic. Most infuriating was the British practice of capturing U.S. sailors who it claimed were British citizens and impressing (forcing) them to serve in the British navy. Chesapeake-Leopard Affair One incident at sea especially aroused American anger and almost led to war. In 1807, only a few miles off the coast of Virginia, the British warship Leopard fired on the U.S. warship Chesapeake. Three Americans were killed, and four others were taken captive and impressed into the British navy. Anti-British feeling ran high, and many Americans demanded war. Jefferson, however, resorted to diplomacy and economic pressure as his response to the crisis. Embargo Act (1807) As an alternative to war, Jefferson persuaded the Democratic-Republican majority in Congress to pass the Embargo Act in 1807. This measure prohibited American merchant ships from sailing to any foreign port. Since the United States was Britain’s largest trading partner, Jefferson hoped that the British would stop violating the rights of neutral nations rather than lose U.S. trade. The embargo, however, backfired and brought greater economic hardship to the United States than to Britain. The British were determined to control the seas at all costs, and they had little difficulty substituting supplies from South America for U.S. goods. The embargo’s effect on the U.S. economy, however, was devastating, especially for the merchant marine and shipbuilders of New England. So bad was the depression that a movement developed in the New England states to secede from the Union. Recognizing that the Embargo Act had failed, Jefferson called for its repeal in 1809 during the final days of his presidency. Even after repeal, however, U.S. ships could trade legally with all nations except Britain and France. President Madison’s Foreign Policy Madison’s presidency was dominated by the same European problems that had plagued Jefferson’s second term. Commercial Warfare Like Jefferson, Madison attempted a combination of diplomacy and economic pressure to deal with the Napoleonic wars. Unlike Jefferson, he finally consented to take the United States to war. Nonintercourse Act of 1809 After the repeal of Jefferson’s disastrous embargo act, Madison hoped to end economic hardship while maintaining his country’s rights as a neutral nation. The Nonintercourse Act of 1809 provided that Americans could now trade with all nations except Britain and France. Topic 4.4 America on the world stage 183  FOREIGN TRADE, 1805 TO 1817 200 Imports Value in millions of dollars 175 Exports 150 125 100 75 50 25 0 1805 1806 1807 1808 1809 1810 1811 1812 1813 1814 1815 1816 1817 Year Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970 Macon’s Bill No. 2 (1810) Economic hardships continued into 1810. Nathaniel Macon, a member of Congress, introduced a bill that restored U.S. trade with Britain and France. Macon’s Bill No. 2 provided, however, that if either Britain or France formally agreed to respect U.S. neutral rights at sea, then the United States would prohibit trade with that nation’s foe. Napoleon’s Deception Upon hearing of Congress’s action, Napoleon announced his intention of revoking the decrees that had violated U.S. neutral rights. Taking Napoleon at his word, Madison carried out the terms of Macon’s Bill No. 2 by embargoing U.S. trade with Britain in 1811. However, he soon realized that Napoleon had no intention of fulfilling his promise. The French continued to seize American merchant ships. The War of 1812 Neither Britain nor the United States wanted their dispute to end in war. And yet war between them did break out in 1812. Causes of the War From the U.S. point of view, the pressures leading to war came from two directions: the continued violation of U.S. neutral rights at sea and troubles with the British on the western frontier. Free Seas and Trade As a trading nation, the United States depended upon the free flow of shipping across the Atlantic. Yet the chief belligerents in Europe, Britain, and France had no interest in respecting neutral rights so long as they were locked in a life-and-death struggle with one another. They well remembered that Britain had seemed a cruel enemy during the American Revolution and the French had supported the colonists. In addition, Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans applauded the French for having overthrown their monarchy in their own revolution. Moreover, even though both the French and the British violated U.S. neutral rights, the British violations were worse because of the British navy’s practice of impressing American sailors. 184 UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION  Frontier Pressures Added to long-standing grievances over British actions at sea were the ambitions of western Americans for more land. Americans on the frontier longed for the lands of British Canada and Spanish Florida. Standing in the way were the British and their Indian and Spanish allies. Conflict with the American Indians was a perennial problem for the restless westerners. For decades, settlers had been gradually pushing the American Indians farther and farther westward. In an effort to defend their lands from further encroachment, Shawnee brothers—a warrior named Tecumseh and a religious leader known as the Prophet—attempted to unite all of the tribes east of the Mississippi River. White settlers became suspicious of Tecumseh and persuaded the governor of the Indiana Territory, General William Henry Harrison, to take aggressive action. In the Battle of Tippecanoe, in 1811, Harrison destroyed the Shawnee headquarters, which ended Tecumseh’s efforts to form an Indian confederacy. The British had provided only a little aid to Tecumseh. Nevertheless, Americans on the frontier blamed the British for instigating the rebellion. War Hawks A congressional election in 1810 had brought a group of new, young Democratic-Republicans to Congress, many of them from frontier states (Kentucky, Tennessee, and Ohio). Known as war hawks because of their eagerness for war with Britain, they quickly gained significant influence in the House of Representatives. Led by Henry Clay of Kentucky and John C. Calhoun of South Carolina, the war hawk members of Congress argued that war with Britain would be the only way to defend American honor, gain Canada, and destroy American Indian resistance on the frontier. Declaration of War British delays in meeting U.S. demands over neutral rights combined with political pressures from the war hawks finally persuaded Madison to seek a declaration of war against Britain. Ironically, the British government had by this time (June 1812) agreed to suspend its naval blockade. News of its decision reached the White House after Congress had declared war. A Divided Nation Neither Congress nor the American people were united in support of the war. In Congress, Pennsylvania and Vermont joined the southern and western states to provide a slight majority for the war declaration. Voting against the war were most representatives from New York, New Jersey, and New England. Election of 1812 A similar division of opinion was seen in the presidential election of 1812, in which Democratic-Republican strength in the South and West overcame Federalist and antiwar Democratic-Republican opposition to war in the North. Madison won reelection, defeating De Witt Clinton of New York, the candidate of the Federalists and antiwar Democratic-Republicans. Topic 4.4 America on the world stage 185  VOTE ON DECLARING WAR IN 1812 Yes No Not voting or unsettled Opposition to the War Americans who opposed the war viewed it as “Mr. Madison’s War” and the work of the war hawks in Congress. Most outspoken in their criticism of the war were New England merchants, Federalist politicians, and “Quids,” or “Old” Democratic-Republicans. New England merchants were opposed because, after the repeal of the Embargo Act, they were making sizable profits from the European war and viewed impressment as merely a minor inconvenience. Both commercial interests and religious ties to Protestantism made them more sympathetic to the Protestant British than to the Catholic French. Federalist politicians viewed the war as a Democratic-Republican scheme to conquer Canada and Florida, with the ultimate aim of increasing Democratic-Republican voting strength. For their part, the “Quids” criticized the war because it violated the classic Democratic-Republican commitment to limited federal power and to the maintenance of peace. Military Defeats and Naval Victories Facing Britain’s overwhelming naval power, Madison’s military strategists based their hope for victory on (1) Napoleon’s continued success in Europe and (2) a U.S. land campaign against Canada. Invasion of Canada A poorly equipped American army initiated military action in 1812 by launching a three-part invasion of Canada, one force starting out from Detroit, another from Niagara, and a third from Lake Champlain. These and later forays into Canada were easily repulsed by the British defenders. An American raid and burning of government buildings in York (Toronto) in 1813 only served to encourage retaliation by the British. 186 UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION  Naval Battles The U.S. navy achieved some notable victories due largely to superior shipbuilding and the valorous deeds of American sailors, including many free African Americans. In late 1812, the U.S. warship Constitution (nicknamed “Old Ironsides”) raised American morale by defeating and sinking a British ship off the coast of Nova Scotia. American privateers, motivated by both patriotism and profit, captured numerous British merchant ships. Offsetting these gains was the success of the British navy in establishing a blockade of the U.S. coast, which crippled trading and fishing. Probably the most important naval battle of the war was in 1813 on Lake Erie with American Captain Oliver Hazard Perry, declaring victory with, “We have met the enemy and they are ours.” This led the way for General William Henry Harrison’s victory at the Battle of the Thames (near Detroit), in which Tecumseh was killed. The next year, 1814, ships commanded by Thomas Macdonough defeated a British fleet on Lake Champlain. As a result, the British had to retreat and abandon their plan to invade New York and New England. Chesapeake Campaign By the spring of 1814, the defeat of Napoleon in Europe enabled the British to increase their forces in North America. In the summer of that year, a British army marched through the nation’s capital, Washington, D.C., and set fire to the White House, the Capitol, and other government buildings. The British also attempted to take Baltimore, but Fort McHenry held out after a night’s bombardment—an event immortalized by Francis Scott Key in the words of “The Star-Spangled Banner.” Southern Campaign Meanwhile, U.S. troops in the South were ably commanded by General Andrew Jackson. In March 1814, at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend in present-day Alabama, Jackson ended the power of an important British ally, the Creek nation. The victory eliminated the Indians and opened new lands to White settlers. A British effort to control the Mississippi River was halted at New Orleans by Jackson leading a force of frontier soldiers, free African Americans, and Creoles. The victory was impressive—but also meaningless. The Battle of New Orleans was fought on January 8, 1815, two weeks after a treaty ending the war had been signed in Ghent, Belgium, but before news of the treaty had reached the military forces. The Treaty of Ghent By 1814, the British were weary of war. Having fought Napoleon for more than a decade, they now faced the prospect of maintaining the peace in Europe. At the same time, Madison’s government recognized that the Americans would be unable to win a decisive victory. American peace commissioners traveled to Ghent, Belgium, to discuss terms of peace with British diplomats. On Christmas Eve 1814, an agreement was reached. The terms halted fighting, returned all conquered territory to the prewar claimant, and recognized the prewar boundary between Canada and the United States. Topic 4.4 America on the world stage 187  The Treaty of Ghent, promptly ratified by the Senate in 1815, said nothing at all about the grievances that led to war. Britain made no concessions concerning impressment, blockades, or other maritime differences. Thus, the war ended in stalemate with no gain for either side. The Hartford Convention Just before the war ended, the New England states threatened to secede from the Union. Bitterly opposed to both the war and the Democratic-Republican government in Washington, radical Federalists in New England urged that the Constitution be amended and that, as a last resort, secession be voted upon. To consider these matters, a special convention was held at Hartford, Connecticut, in December 1814. Delegates from the New England states rejected the radical calls for secession. But to limit the growing power of the Democratic- Republicans in the South and West, they adopted a number of proposals. One of them called for a two-thirds vote of both houses for any future declaration of war. Shortly after the convention dissolved, news came of both Jackson’s victory at New Orleans and the Treaty of Ghent. These events ended criticism of the war and further weakened the Federalists by stamping them as unpatriotic. The War’s Legacy From Madison’s point of view, the war achieved none of its original aims. Nevertheless, it had a number of important consequences for the future development of the American republic, including the following: 1. Having survived two wars with Britain, the United States gained the respect of other nations. 2. The United States accepted Canada as a part of the British Empire. 3. Denounced for its talk of secession, the Federalist Party came to an end as a national force and declined even in New England. 4. Talk of nullification and secession in New England set a precedent that would later be used by the South. 5. Abandoned by the British, American Indians were forced to surrender land to White settlement. 6. With the British naval blockade limiting European goods, U.S. factories were built and Americans moved toward industrial self-sufficiency. 7. War heroes such as Andrew Jackson and William Henry Harrison would soon be in the forefront of a new generation of political leaders. 8. The feeling of nationalism grew stronger as did a belief that the future for the United States lay in the West and away from Europe. 188 UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION Monroe and Foreign Affairs Following the War of 1812, the United States adopted a more aggressive, nationalistic approach in its relations with other nations. During Madison’s presidency, when problems with the Barbary pirates again developed, a fleet under Stephen Decatur was sent in 1815 to force the rulers of North Africa to allow American shipping the free use of the Mediterranean. President Monroe and Secretary of State John Quincy Adams continued to follow a nationalistic policy that actively advanced American interests while maintaining peace. Canada Although the Treaty of Ghent of 1814 had ended the war between Britain and the United States, it left unresolved most of their diplomatic differences, including many involving Canada. Rush-Bagot Agreement (1817) During Monroe’s first year as president, British and American negotiators agreed to a major disarmament pact. The Rush-Bagot Agreement strictly limited naval armament on the Great Lakes. In time, the agreement was extended to place limits on border fortifications as well. Ultimately, the border between the United States and Canada was to become the longest unfortified border in the world. Treaty of 1818 Improved relations between the United States and Britain continued in a treaty that provided for (1) shared fishing rights off the coast of Newfoundland; (2) joint occupation of the Oregon Territory for ten years; and (3) the setting of the northern limits of the Louisiana Territory at the 49th parallel, thus establishing the western U.S.-Canada boundary line. Florida During the War of 1812, U.S. troops had occupied western Florida, a strip of land on the Gulf of Mexico extending all the way to the Mississippi Delta. Previously, this land had been held by Spain, Britain’s ally. After the war, Spain had difficulty governing the rest of Florida (the peninsula itself) because its troops had been removed from Florida to battle revolts in the South American colonies. The chaotic conditions permitted groups of Seminoles, runaway slaves, and White outlaws to conduct raids into U.S. territory and retreat to safety across the Florida border. These disorders gave Monroe and General Andrew Jackson an opportunity to take military action in Spanish Florida, a territory long coveted by American expansionists. Jackson’s Military Campaign In late 1817, the president commissioned General Jackson to stop the raiders and, if necessary, pursue them across the border into Spanish west Florida. Jackson carried out his orders with a vengeance and probably went beyond his instructions. In 1818, he led a force of militia into Florida, destroyed Seminole villages, and hanged two Seminole chiefs. Capturing Pensacola, Jackson drove out the Spanish governor and hanged two British traders accused of aiding the Seminoles. Topic 4.4 America on the world stage 189  Many members of Congress feared that Jackson’s overzealousness would precipitate a war with both Spain and Britain. However, Secretary of State John Quincy Adams persuaded Monroe to support Jackson, and the British decided not to intervene. Florida Purchase Treaty (1819) Spain, worried that the United States would seize Florida and preoccupied with troubles in Latin America, decided to get the best possible terms for Florida. By treaty in 1819, Spain turned over all of its possessions in Florida and its own claims in the Oregon Territory to the United States. In exchange, the United States agreed to assume $5 million in claims against Spain and give up any U.S. territorial claims to the Spanish province of Texas. The agreement is also called the Adams-Onís Treaty. The Monroe Doctrine Although focused on its own growth, the United States did not ignore the ambitions of Europe in the Western Hemisphere. The restoration of a number of monarchies in Europe after the fall of Napoleon in 1815 produced a backlash against republican movements. Restored monarchies in France, Austria, and Prussia, together with Russia, worked together to suppress liberal elements in Italy and Spain. They also considered helping Spain to return to power in South America, where a number of republics had recently declared their independence. In addition, Russia’s presence in Alaska worried both Britain and the United States. Using their trading posts in Alaska as a base, Russian seal hunters had spread southward and established a trading post at San Francisco Bay. British and U.S. leaders decided they had a common interest in protecting North and South America from possible aggression by a European power. British Initiative British naval power deterred the Spanish from attempting a comeback in Latin America. But to maintain British trade with the Latin American republics required diplomacy. British Foreign Secretary George Canning proposed to Richard Rush, the U.S. minister in London, a joint Anglo-American warning to the European powers not to intervene in South America. American Response Monroe and most of his advisers thought Canning’s idea of a joint declaration made sense. However, Secretary of State John Quincy Adams disagreed. He believed that joint action with Britain would restrict U.S. opportunities for further expansion in the hemisphere. Adams reasoned as follows: (1) If the United States acted alone, Britain could be counted upon to stand behind the U.S. policy; (2) No European power would risk going to war in South America, and if it did, the British navy would surely defeat the aggressor. President Monroe decided to act as Adams advised—to issue a statement to the world that did not have Britain as a coauthor. The Doctrine On December 2, 1823, President Monroe inserted into his annual message to Congress a declaration of U.S. policy toward Europe and Latin America. The Monroe Doctrine, as it came to be called, asserted “as a 190 UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION principle in which the rights and interests of the United States are involved, that the American continents, by the free and independent condition which they have assumed and maintain, are henceforth not to be considered as subjects for future colonization by any European powers.” Monroe declared further that the United States opposed attempts by a European power to interfere in the affairs of any republic in the Western Hemisphere. Impact Monroe’s bold words of nationalistic purpose were applauded by the American public but were soon forgotten, as most citizens were more concerned with domestic issues. In Britain, Canning was annoyed by the doctrine because he recognized that it applied not just to the other European powers but to his country as well. The British, too, were warned not to intervene and not to seek new territory in the Western Hemisphere. The European monarchs reacted angrily to Monroe’s message. Still, they recognized that their purposes were thwarted not by his words but by the might of the British navy. The Monroe Doctrine had less significance at the time than in later decades, when it would be hailed by politicians and citizens alike as the cornerstone of U.S. foreign policy toward Latin America. In the 1840s, President James Polk was the first of many presidents to justify his foreign policy by referring to Monroe’s warning words. REFLECT ON THE LEARNING OBJECTIVE 1. Explain the reasons and ways that American foreign policy changed during this period. KEY TERMS BY THEME Support (NAT, POL) neutrality Creek nation war hawks impressment Battle of New Orleans Henry Clay Chesapeake-Leopard affair Treaty of Ghent (1814) John C. Calhoun Embargo Act (1807) Foreign Affairs (WOR) Opposition (POL) James Madison Stephen Decatur “Quids” Nonintercourse Act (1809) Rush-Bagot Agreement Hartford Convention (1814) Macon’s Bill No. 2 (1810) (1817) War of 1812 Treaty of 1818 The West (MIG, ARC) “Old Ironsides” Andrew Jackson Tecumseh Battle of Lake Erie Florida Purchase Treaty Prophet Oliver Hazard Perry (1819) William Henry Harrison Battle of the Thames Monroe Doctrine (1823) Battle of Tippecanoe Thomas Macdonough The Anthem (SOC) War (WOR) Battle of Lake Champlain Francis Scott Key Napoleon Bonaparte Andrew Jackson “The Star-Spangled Barbary pirates Battle of Horseshoe Bend Banner” Topic 4.4 America on the world stage 191 MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS Questions 1–3 refer to the following excerpt. “I am ready to allow, Mr. President, that both Great Britain and France have given us abundant cause for war.... My plan would be, and my first wish is, to prepare for it—to put the country in complete armor—in the attitude imperiously demanded in a crisis of war, and to which it must be brought before any war can be effective.... I must call on every member of this Senate to pause before he leaps into or crosses the Rubicon [Roman leader Julius Caesar touched off a war in 49 BCE when he and his troops crossed the Rubicon River]—declaring war is passing the Rubicon in reality.” Senator Obadiah German of New York, speech in the Senate, June 1812 1. Support for the War of 1812 was the strongest among (A) frontier settlers who wanted more land from American Indians (B) New England merchants who feared impressment (C) Protestants who had religious sympathies with Great Britain (D) the Democratic-Republicans who most emphasized states’ rights 2. Who would be most likely to agree with German’s Rubicon reference? (A) John Calhoun and other politicians from the South (B) Henry Clay and other politicians from the West (C) Officials from the executive branch (D) Merchants from New England 3. Which of the following is the best support for German’s claim that the United States had “abundant cause for war”? (A) The impressment of U.S. sailors (B) The controversy over the Louisiana Purchase (C) The actions by the Barbary pirates (D) The findings of the Lewis and Clark expedition SHORT-ANSWER QUESTION 1. Answer (a), (b), and (c). (a) Briefly explain how ONE specific event or historical development was used by supporters of going to war against Britain in 1812. (b) Briefly explain how ONE specific event or historical development was used by opponents of going to war against Britain in 1812. (c) Briefly explain how ONE reason for or against the War of 1812 played a major role in U.S. politics and policies after the war. 192 UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION  Topic 4.5 Market Revolution I never thought my cotton gin would change history. Eli Whitney (1765–1825) Learning Objective: Explain the causes and effects of the innovations in technology, agriculture, and commerce over time. In the early 1800s, the Jeffersonian dream of a nation of independent farmers remained strong in rural areas. Innovations and new technology in the 19th century would steadily decrease the demand for people working in agriculture and increase the demand for people working in commerce. Ironically, Jefferson, a father of a political revolution, would see his ideal nation of small farmers overwhelmed by an economic revolution based on new knowledge. As the 19th century progressed, an increasing percentage of the American people were swept up in the dynamic economic changes of the Industrial Revolution. Political conflicts over tariffs, internal improvements, and the Bank of the United States (see Topics 4.3 and 4.8) reflected the importance to people’s lives of a national economy that was rapidly growing. Development of the Northwest The Old Northwest consisted of six states that joined the Union before 1860: Ohio (1803), Indiana (1816), Illinois (1818), Michigan (1837), Wisconsin (1848), and Minnesota (1858). These states came from territories formed out of land ceded to the national government in the 1780s by one of the original 13 states. The procedure for turning these territories into states was part of the Northwest Ordinance passed by Congress in 1787 (see Topics 3.7 and 3.12). In the early years of the 19th century, much of the Old Northwest was unsettled frontier and the part of it that was settled relied upon the Mississippi to transport grain to southern markets and the port of New Orleans. By mid- century, however, this region became closely tied to the other northern states by two factors: (1) military campaigns by federal troops that drove American Indians from the land and (2) the building of canals and railroads that established common markets between the Great Lakes and the East Coast. Agriculture In the Old Northwest, corn and wheat were very profitable and fed people in growing urban areas. Using the newly invented steel plow (by John Deere) and mechanical reaper (by Cyrus McCormick), a farm family was more efficient and could plant more acres, needing to supplement its labor Topic 4.5 Market revolution 193 only with a few hired workers at harvest time. Part of the crop was used to feed cattle and hogs and also to supply distillers and brewers with grain for making whiskey and beer. Farmers shipped grain quickly to cities to avoid spoilage. Transportation Vital to the development of both a national and an industrial economy was an efficient network of interconnecting roads and canals for moving people, raw materials, and manufactured goods. Roads Pennsylvania’s Lancaster Turnpike, built in the 1790s, connected Philadelphia with the rich farmlands around Lancaster. Its success stimulated the construction of other privately built and relatively short toll roads that, by the mid-1820s, connected most of the country’s major cities. Despite the need for interstate roads, states’ rights advocates blocked the spending of federal funds on internal improvements. Construction of highways that crossed state lines was therefore unusual. One notable exception was the National, or Cumberland Road, a paved highway and major route to the west extending more than a thousand miles from Maryland to Illinois. It was begun in 1811 and completed in the 1850s, using both federal and state money, with the different states receiving ownership of segments of the highway. Canals The completion of the Erie Canal in New York State in 1825 was a major event in linking the economies of western farms and eastern cities. The success of this canal in stimulating economic growth touched off a frenzy of canal building in other states. In little more than a decade, canals joined together all of the major lakes and rivers east of the Mississippi. Improved transportation meant lower food prices in the East, more immigrants settling in the West, and stronger economic ties between the two sections. Steam Engines and Steamboats The development of steam-powered engines in the 18th century revolutionized the location of factories. When factories ran on the power of moving water, they had to be located on a stream. However, a steam engine could be set up anywhere—in mills, mines, and factories. They first became widely used in Great Britain, but they spread to the United States in the 19th century. The age of mechanized, steam-powered travel began in 1807 with the successful voyage up the Hudson River of the Clermont, a steamboat developed by Robert Fulton. Early steamboats could travel upriver at speeds of almost five miles per hour. Commercially operated steamboat lines soon made round-trip shipping on the nation’s great rivers both faster and cheaper. Hauling freight from Cincinnati to New York took more than seven weeks before the days of steamboats and canals. After, it took less than three weeks. Railroads Even more rapid and reliable links between cities became possible with the building of the first U.S. railroad lines in the late 1820s. The early railroads were hampered at first by safety problems, but by the 1830s, they were competing directly with canals as an alternative method for carrying passengers and freight. The combination of railroads with the other major 194 UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION improvements in transportation rapidly changed small western towns such as Cleveland, Cincinnati, Detroit, and Chicago into booming commercial centers of the expanding national economy. These improvements in transportation linked the regions of the North and the Midwest, as people in growing cities in Massachusetts and New York purchased much-needed wheat and corn raised in Ohio, Illinois, and states farther west. However, railroads were less common in the South, which continued to rely on rivers more than rails. Communication Changes in transportation brought the country closer together. But it could travel only as fast as ships could sail and horses could run. In 1844, inventor Samuel F. B. Morse demonstrated a successful telegraph, which transmitted messages along wires almost instantaneously. As wires were strung around the country, often along railroad tracks and later under oceans, for the first time in human history, people were able to communicate as fast as electricity could travel. Suddenly, managers in New York City, government officials in Washington, D.C., and military leaders in headquarters could direct people dozens, hundreds, or thousands of miles away more easily than ever before. Source: Getty Images Telegraphs used a system of short and long signals (dots and dashes) to send messages. The chart above provided a visual way to learn the code for each letter, asserting that people who studied it could learn the code in one hour or less. Growth of Industry At the start of the 19th century, a manufacturing economy had barely begun in the United States. By mid-century, however, U.S. manufacturing surpassed agriculture in value, and by century’s end, it was the world’s leader. This rapid industrial growth was the result of a unique combination of factors. Topic 4.5 Market revolution 195  Mechanical Inventions Protected by patent laws, inventors looked forward to handsome rewards if their ideas for new tools or machines proved practical. Eli Whitney, who had developed the cotton gin in 1793 (see Topic 3.12), was only the most famous of hundreds of Americans whose long hours of tinkering in their workshops resulted in improved technology. During the War of 1812, he developed a system for making rifles using interchangeable parts, identical components that can be assembled to make a final product. Before this, the parts of a rifle were not standardized enough that one could be replaced for another. Under Eli’s system, each part could be mass produced and then the parts could be put together to make a gun. This vastly increased the efficiency of making guns and other items. Interchangeable parts then became the basis for mass production methods in the new northern factories. Corporations for Raising Capital In 1811, New York passed a law that made it easier for a business to incorporate and raise capital (money) by selling shares of stock. Other states soon followed New York’s lead. Owners of a corporation risked only the amount of money that they invested in a venture. They were not personally responsible for losses incurred by the corporation. Changes in state corporation laws facilitated the raising of the large sums of capital necessary for building factories, canals, and railroads. Factory System When Samuel Slater emigrated from Britain, taking information about factory designs out of the country was illegal. However, he had memorized the system and technology used in British cotton mills, and he applied these secrets to help establish the first U.S. textile factory in 1791. Early in the next century, the embargo and the War of 1812 stimulated domestic manufacturing and the protective tariffs enacted by Congress helped the new factories prosper. In the 1820s, New England emerged as the country’s leading manufacturing center as a result of the region’s abundant waterpower for driving the new machinery and excellent seaports for shipping goods. Also, the decline of New England’s maritime industry made capital available for manufacturing, while the decline of farming in the region yielded a ready labor supply. Other northern states with similar resources and problems—New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania—followed New England’s lead. As the factory system expanded, it encouraged the growth of financial businesses such as banking and insurance. Labor At first, factory owners had difficulty finding workers for their mills. Factory life could not compete with the lure of cheap land in the West. In response to this difficulty, textile mills in Lowell, Massachusetts, recruited young farm women and housed them in company dormitories. In the 1830s, other factories imitated the Lowell System. Many factories also made extensive use of child labor. Children as young as seven left home to work in the new factories. Toward the middle of the century, northern manufacturers began to employ immigrants in large numbers. 196 UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION  Unions Trade (or craft) unions were organized in major cities as early as the 1790s and increased in number as the factory system took hold. Many skilled workers (shoemakers and weavers, for example) had to seek employment in factories because their own small shops (the crafts system) produced items that could no longer compete with lower-priced, mass-produced goods. Long hours, low pay, and poor working conditions led to widespread discontent among factory workers. A prime goal of the early unions was to reduce the workday to ten hours. The obstacles to union success, however, were many: (1) immigrant replacement workers, (2) state laws outlawing unions, and (3) frequent economic depressions with high unemployment. Commercial Agriculture In the early 1800s, farming became more of a commercial enterprise and less of a means of providing subsistence for the family. Several factors promoted this switch to cash crops: Large areas of western land were made available at low prices by the federal government. State banks made acquiring land easier by providing farmers with loans at low interest rates. Initially, western farmers were limited to sending their products down the Ohio and Mississippi rivers to southern markets. The development of canals and railroads opened new markets in the growing factory cities in the East. Cotton and the South Throughout the 19th century, the principal cash crop in the South was cotton. Eli Whitney’s invention of the cotton gin in 1793 (see Topic 3.12) transformed the agriculture of an entire region. Now that they could easily separate the cotton fiber from the seeds, southern planters found cotton more profitable than tobacco and indigo, the leading crops of the colonial period. They invested their capital in the purchase of enslaved African Americans and new land in Alabama and Mississippi (see Topic 4.13). The cotton industry connected the South with a global economy. Mills in New England and Europe depended on cotton grown by enslaved workers in the South. Shipping firms, banks, and insurance companies based in the North, particularly New York City, prospered through their roles in the transport of cotton. Further, in order to devote all of their land to growing cotton, many plantation owners purchased pork, corn, and other food from states in the Midwest. REFLECT ON THE LEARNING OBJECTIVE 1. Explain the motivation and results from the new developments in technology, farming, and business during this period. Topic 4.5 Market revolution 197  KEY TERMS BY THEME Industry (WXT) Robert Fulton; steamboats factory system Lancaster Turnpike railroads Lowell System; textile mills National (Cumberland) telegraph unions Road Eli Whitney; cotton gin John Deere interchangeable parts market revolution Cyrus McCormick corporations Identities (ARC) Erie Canal Samuel Slater Old Northwest MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS Questions 1–3 refer to the following excerpt. “At home the people are the sovereign power.... The industrial classes are the true sovereigns. Idleness is a condition so unrecognized and unrespected with us, that the few professing it find themselves immediately thrown out of the great machine of active life which constitutes American society. “The CULTIVATORS OF THE SOIL constitute the great industrial class in this country... for, at this moment they do not only feed all other classes but also no insignificant portion of needy Europe, furnish the raw material for manufactures, and raise the great staples which figure so largely in the accounts of the merchant, the ship owner and manufacturer, in every village, town, and seaport in the Union.... “The system of railroads and cheap transportation already begins to supply the seaboard cities with some fair and beautiful fruits of the fertile West.” A. J. Downing, editor, The Horticulturalist, 1848 1. The crop that best fits Downing’s description as one of the “great staples which figure so largely in the accounts of the merchant, the ship owner and manufacturer" was (A) corn, because it was the most important food crop in the Ohio River Valley (B) tobacco, because it was the crop that first fostered the growth of slavery in Virginia (C) sugar, because it was the most profitable crop in the British and French colonies in the Americas (D) cotton, because it was the dominant export crop in the United States 198 UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION  2. The development of commercial farming in the Old Northwest contributed to increases in (A) the develoment of interchangeable parts (B) the number of enslaved people becoming fugitives (C) the territory where slavery was allowed (D) the number and size of towns and cities 3. The description in the third paragraph of the excerpt most clearly expresses which of the following visions of the United States? (A) Alexander Hamilton’s plan for a new nation (B) Crèvecoeur's description of the American "New Man" (C) Henry Clay’s plan for economic growth (D) Andrew Jackson’s “politics of the Common Man” SHORT-ANSWER QUESTION Use complete sentences; an outline or bulleted list alone is not acceptable. 1. Answer (a), (b), and (c). (a) Briefly explain ONE historical event or development in the period 1820 to 1860 that influenced the westward movement from the states along the Atlantic coast. (b) Briefly explain ONE specific factor in the period 1820 to 1860 that resulted in the rapid population growth of cities on the Atlantic coast. (c) Briefly explain how ONE specific group in the period 1820 to 1860 did not benefit from the westward movement. Topic 4.5 Market revolution 199  Topic 4.6 Effects of the Market Revolution on Society and Culture A high and honorable feeling generally prevails, and the people begin to assume, more and more, a national character.... Hezekiah Niles, Niles’ Weekly Register, 1815 Learning Objective: Explain how and why innovation in technology, agriculture, and commerce affected various segments of American society over time. T he wide impact of the market revolution that resulted from the innovations in technology, agriculture, and commerce affected all groups of people in the growing nation. They resulted in the development of a distinctively American culture, an increase in religious fervor, and support for various reform movements. Specialization on the farm, the growth of cities, industrialization, and the development of modern capitalism meant the end of self-sufficient households and a growing interdependence among people. These changes combined to bring about a revolution in the marketplace. Farmers provided food to feed workers in cities, who in turn provided an array of mass-produced goods to farm families. For most Americans, the standard of living increased. At the same time, however, adapting to an impersonal, fast-changing economy presented challenges and problems. Women As American society became more urban and industrialized, the nature of work and family life changed for women, many of whom no longer worked next to their husbands on family farms. Women seeking employment in a city were usually limited to two choices: domestic service or teaching. Factory jobs, as in the Lowell System, were not common. The overwhelming majority of working women were single. If they married, they left their jobs and took up duties in the home. In both urban and rural settings, women were gaining relatively more control over their lives. As more men worked away from home, women took on new responsibilities as moral leaders within the home, a development known as the cult of domesticity (see Topic 4.11). Marriages arranged by one’s 200 UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION parents became less common, and some women elected to have fewer children. Nevertheless, legal restrictions on women remained. For example, they could not vote. Economic and Social Mobility Real wages improved for most urban workers in the early 1800s, but the gap between the very wealthy and the very poor increased. Social mobility (moving upward in income level and social status) did occur from one generation to the next, and economic opportunities in the United States were greater than in Europe. Extreme examples of poor, hard-working people becoming millionaires, however, were rare. Population Growth and Change Population growth provided both the laborers and the consumers required for industrial development. Between 1800 and 1825, the U.S. population doubled; in the following 25 years, it doubled again. A high birthrate accounted for most of this growth, but it was strongly supplemented after 1830 by immigrants arriving from Europe, particularly from Great Britain and Germany. The nonwhite population—African Americans and American Indians—also grew in total number. However, as a percentage of the total population, nonwhites declined from almost 20 percent in 1790 to 15 percent in the 1850s. The enslaved population increased steadily despite the ban on the importation of enslaved Africans after 1808. In no other country in the Americas did the enslaved population generally increase after the slave trade ended. By the 1830s, almost one-third of the population lived west of the Alleghenies. At the same time, both old and new urban areas were growing rapidly. Immigration In 1820, about 8,000 immigrants arrived from Europe, but beginning in 1832, there was a sudden increase. After 1832, the number of new arrivals never fell below 50,000 a year and in one year, 1854, climbed as high as 428,000. From the 1830s through the 1850s, nearly 4 million people from northern Europe crossed the Atlantic to seek a new life in the United States. The surge in immigration between 1830 and 1860 was chiefly the result of the following: (1) the development of inexpensive and relatively rapid ocean transportation, (2) famines and revolutions in Europe that drove people from their homelands, and (3) the growing reputation of the United States as a country offering economic opportunities and political freedom. Arriving by ship in the northern seacoast cities of Boston, New York, and Philadelphia, many immigrants remained where they landed while others traveled to farms and cities of the Old Northwest. Few journeyed to the South, where the plantation economy and slavery limited the opportunities for free labor. The immigrants strengthened the U.S. economy by providing both a steady stream of inexpensive labor and an increased demand for mass- produced consumer goods. Topic 4.6 Effects of the market revolution on society and culture 201