Scientific Research Methods and Statistical Application Past Paper PDF (Addis College, June 2024)

Addis College School of Graduate Studies Department of Construction Technology and Management Scientific Research methods and Statistical Application (June, 2024) Kuma Gowwomsa E. (PhD) Email: kuma.s@addiscoll...

Addis College School of Graduate Studies Department of Construction Technology and Management Scientific Research methods and Statistical Application (June, 2024) Kuma Gowwomsa E. (PhD) Email: [email protected] Mobile: +251911268836 1  Chapter 4 Research Methodology 4.3 Data Collection  3 Contents Data Collection 1. Collecting Data 2. Selecting data collection methods 3. Mixing source and methods 4. Data collection instruments  4 1. Collecting Data ❑ Collecting data involves: ▪ Sources - “Where” you will get the information? ▪ Methods – “How” you will collect/gather the information? 1.1 Source of Information 1. From “where” or from “whom” will you get the information? ▪ Existing information: records, reports, program documents, logs, journals. ▪ People: participants, parents, volunteers, teachers. ▪ Pictorial records and observations: video or photos, observations of events etc.  5 Collecting Data 1.2 Methods of Data Collection ❑ Common methods include: 1. Survey 2. Case Study 3. Interview 4. Observation 5. Group assessment 6. Expert or peer reviews 7. Tests 8. Photograph, videotape, slides 9. Diaries, journals, logs; and 10. Document review and analysis.  6 Collecting Data 1.2 Methods of Data Collection ❑ Methods are often thought of as quantitative or qualitative. Table 1: Quantitative vs. Qualitative methods No. Quantitative Qualitative methods methods 1 Surveys, Focus groups questionnaires 2 Tests Un-structured interviews 3 Existing databases Un-structured observation  7 Collecting Data 1.2 Methods of Data Collection ❑ Quantitative and Qualitative information. "Not everything that counts, can be counted." 5 kids = Quantity, Happy Kids = Quality  8 Collecting Data 1.2 Methods of Data Collection ❑ Quantitative data collection methods produce numbers While qualitative data collection methods produce words. ❑ Each quantitative and qualitative data collection methods has its strengths and weaknesses. ❑ Quantitative methods are more structured and allow for aggregation and generalization, whereas Qualitative methods are more open and provide for depth and richness.  9 Collecting Data 1.3 Which Methods shall be used? Take note the ffg keys: ❑ There is no simple answer. ❑ There is no ONE best method. ❑ All depend on purpose of evaluation, respondents and available resources.  10 2. Selecting Data Collection Methods ❑ When choosing data collection methods, consider the following points: A. The purpose of your evaluation ❑ Will the method allow you to gather information that can be analyzed and presented in a way that will be credible and useful to you and others? B. The respondents ❑ What is the most appropriate method? Considering how the respondents can best be reached? How they might best respond, literacy, cultural considerations, etc.? ❑ What kind of data your stakeholders will find most credible and useful?  Selecting Data Collection 11 Methods C. Resources available ❑ Time, money, and staff to design, implement, and analyze the information. ❑ What can you afford? Type of information you need. Numbers, percents, comparisons, stories, examples, etc. ❑ Advantages and disadvantages of each method.  12 3. Mixing Sources and Methods ❑ Often, it is better to use more than one data collection method. Why would this be important?  Mixing Sources and 13 Methods ❑ When we use several methods, we say we are ‘triangulating’. Triangulation is important in evaluation because we want accurate and trustworthy information. ❑ Triangulation means the use of multiple sources and methods to gain a better understanding. ❑ Each source and each method has inherent biases, so using more than one source and/or method provides a more accurate picture. ▪ How might you mix sources of information in your evaluation? ▪ How might you mix data collection methods to evaluate your program?  Mixing Sources and 14 Methods A. Mix sources of information ❑ For example, you might collect information from client, contractors, consultants and financiers. B. Mix data collection methods ❑ For example: You might survey participants AND interview a sample of participants. You might conduct focus group interviews with professionals service participants AND observe the projects site. ❑ Thinking back on the above points: What different type of information might you get from the different sources and methods? ❑ Using multiple sources and/or methods means more time and resources. ❑ The choice of data collection method ultimately depends upon the resources you have available.  15 4. Data Collection Instruments ❑ We use the term “instrument” to mean the tool on which the data is actually recorded: 1. Questionnaire, 2. Interview, 3. Document analysis, 4. Focus group, 5. Observation, 6. Experiment, and 7. Mathematical modeling. ❑ If you have selected a survey as your method, you automatically know that you will need a questionnaire. But, if you choose a method such as focus group or interview or observation, think about what you will use for recording the information!  Data Collection 16 Instruments 4.1 Questionnaire ❑ A questionnaire is a type of survey where respondents write answers to questions posed by the researcher on a question form. ❑ A number of respondents are asked identical questions, in order to gain information that can be analyzed, patterns found and comparisons made. 4.1.1 Closed-ended Questionnaires ❑ The commonest type of questionnaire involves closed choice or fixed questions where the respondent is required to answer by choosing an option from a number of given answers, usually by ticking a box or circling an answer. ❑ These types of questionnaires only gather straightforward, uncomplicated information, and only simple questions can be asked.  Data Collection 17 Instruments 4.1 Questionnaire 4.1.2 Open-ended Questionnaires ❑ The open-ended questionnaire differs in that it allows the respondent to formulate and record their answers in their own words. ❑ These are more qualitative and can produce detailed answers to complex problems. ❑ Open-ended questions give a greater insight and understanding of the topic researched but may be difficult to classify and quantify and must be carefully interpreted. ❑ Fixed choice questions are easy to classify and quantify, require less time, effort and ingenuity to answer but do not allow the respondents to qualify, develop or clarify their answers.  Data Collection 18 Instruments 4.1 Questionnaire ❑ Advantage of a questionnaire: ▪ Quick ▪ Cheap and efficient ▪ Can reach a large number of people; and ▪ Consistent format means there is little scope for bias introduced by different researchers.  Data Collection 19 Instruments 4.1 Questionnaire ❑ Disadvantages of a questionnaire: ▪ Limited answers only can be given; ▪ Lack of qualitative depth results in superficiality; ▪ No way of probing for more information in superficial responses; ▪ Not always accurate:- not possible to verify what appears to be an inaccurate answer and little check on honesty of responses. Questions may mean different things to different people; ▪ Predetermined boxes may not be appropriate. ▪ Low response rate (a response rate refers to the number of people who completed your survey divided by the number of people who make up the total sample group.; and ▪ Construction difficult:- instructions must be clear and unambiguous and questions carefully worded.  Data Collection 20 Instruments 4.2 Interviews ❑ Interviews are limited to cases where the subjects of study are humans. ❑ Interviews are a type of survey where questions are delivered in a face-to-face encounter by an interviewer. ❑ The interview is like a conversation and has the purpose of obtaining information relevant to a particular research topic. It is initiated by the researcher and is focused on specific content. ❑ As with questionnaires interviews can be approached from either a quantitative or qualitative angle and there are many variations on the general method.  Data Collection 21 Instruments 2. Interviews 1. Quantitative Interviews ❑ Purely quantitative interviews are rather like a closed ended questionnaire that the interviewer fills in for the respondent. ❑ These are highly structured, formal interviews which are determined in advance and have fixed responses. ❑ 4.2.2 Qualitative Interviews ❑ At the other end of the scale, the unstructured, purely qualitative interview is rather like an informal conversation. ❑ Here questions are asked in the natural course of interaction and arise from the particular context.  Data Collection 22 Instruments 4.2 Interviews 4.2.3 Semi-structured Interviews ❑ A large number of interviews will fall somewhere in between these two extremes and are known as semi- structured interviews. ❑ These have specific questions already predetermined that are asked to the respondent in a particular order, or topics and issues to be covered in the course of the interview. ❑ There are advantages and disadvantages associated with each type of method. Structured interviews maximize reliability and are easier to classify and quantify. By contrast unstructured interviews can give a greater insight and more in-depth understanding of the topic researched, but need more expertise to control and more time for analysis.  Data Collection 23 Instruments 4.2 Interviews ❑ Advantages of interviews: 1. High response rate. 2. Can collect complex information. 3. High degree of researcher control achieved. 4. Can be made more responsive to early results. 5. Relaxed environment. ❑ Disadvantage of interviews: 1. Limited sample only. 2. Can be difficult to analyze (especially in-depth interviews). 3. May be a hostile reaction. 4. Whole process is time consuming. 5. Recording techniques may cause problems. 6. There is room for interviewer bias:- this should be acknowledged.  Data Collection 24 Instruments 4.3 Document Analysis ❑ This refers to the process of using any kind of document, films, television programs and photographs as well as written sources, such as books, papers and letters, for analysis in relation to a particular research question. ❑ It can be used as the singular method of research or as a supplementary form of inquiry. ❑ Document analysis, also referred to as content analysis, differs from the majority of research methods in 2- Major ways: 1. Indirect form of research: It is something that has been produced, so the investigator is not generating original data. 2. Un-obtrusive or 'non-reactive' method: This refers to the fact that the document will not be affected in any way by your research; it cannot react as a human can.  Data Collection 25 Instruments 4.3 Document Analysis ❑ In general, documents have been written from the perspective of those from official sources but a different perspective can be gained from using personal accounts and oral testaments such as letters, diaries, and autobiographies. ❑ Reliability and validity are central concerns in document analysis. ❑ Documents generally exist for some purpose and the knowledge of this purpose is important in understanding and interpreting the results of the analysis.  Data Collection 26 Instruments 4.3 Document Analysis ❑ Advantages of document analysis: 1. The data never alters and can be subject to re- analysis; 2. Events can be compared over time and cultures; 3. Gives an expert understanding; 4. Computers can aid analysis and lead to complete reliability in applying the rules you set down for coding the text; 5. Un-obtrusive ( Non Reactive); and 6. Cheap  Data Collection 27 Instruments 4.3 Document Analysis ❑ Disadvantages of document analysis: ▪ Subject to bias and subjectivity:- impossible to allow for biases introduced by the fact that the document studied has been written for a particular purpose and is the author's own particular account; events may be sensationalized, subject to political bias etc.; ▪ Evidence may be out of date; ▪ May not be accurately recorded; ▪ Documents available may be limited; and ▪ Can be laborious and time consuming.  Data Collection 28 Instruments 4.4 Focus Group ❑ The focus group is a type of interview that involves carefully selected individuals who usually do not know each other. ❑ They generally consist of 7-10 members alongside the researcher. ❑ These individuals are selected as they hold particular characteristics which the researcher believes are necessary to the topic of focus. ❑ A group discussion is held in a permissive environment in order to extract opinions and share ideas and perceptions through group interaction. It is not necessary to reach a consensus.  Data Collection 29 Instruments 4.4 Focus Group ❑ Focus groups are extremely useful in providing qualitative data which gives an insight into attitudes and perceptions difficult to obtain using other procedures. ❑ The researcher acts as a moderator and listener posing predetermined open ended questions which the respondents answer in any way they choose.  Data Collection 30 Instruments 4.5 Observation ❑ Observation refers to the process of observing and recording events or situations. ❑ The technique is particularly useful for discovering how individuals or groups of people or animals (and in some instances inanimate objects) behave, act or react. 4.5.1 Participant Observation ❑ Participant observation is usually limited to studies of human subjects. ❑ The researcher becomes part of the group studied and participates in their daily life and activities: observing their everyday situations and their behavior in these situations. ❑ Conversation is used in order to discover the subjects' own interpretations of events.  Data Collection 31 Instruments 4.5 Observation 4.5.2 Non-participant Observation ❑ In non-participant observation the researchers simply observe the activities without taking part themselves. ❑ Whilst this has the advantage of preventing the researcher from unduly influencing or becoming involved in activities they may not wish to take part in (for example dangerous or criminal actions), they are less likely to understand fully the meanings behind behavior in the group studied. ❑ Beside the study of human subjects, non-participant observation can also be used to study animal behavior. ❑ The observation and recording of natural phenomenon can also be considered observation study.  Data Collection 32 Instruments 4.5 Observation ❑ Advantages of observation: 1. Requires little training or familiarization; 2. Can understand meanings behind actions; 3. Behavior can be observed in its natural environment, the subject is undisturbed; 4. Can study different groups; and 5. Flexibility:- researcher may come across conditions and events previously not comprehended.  Data Collection 33 Instruments 4.5 Observation ❑ Disadvantages of observation: 1. Time consuming; 2. Problems with recording data; 3. Can only study a small group; 4. Cannot make generalizations:- no way of judging whether the group is typical; 5. If covert is it ethical? and 6. Moral, legal and injury risks associated with this method.  Data Collection 34 Instruments 4.6 Experiment ❑ This method involves setting up an experiment in order to test a particular theory or hypothesis. ❑ In its simplest terms experimentation is concerned with seeing what changes occur if something new is tried out and with the effects of these changes on something else (Robson, 1978). ❑ It is a method particularly associated with the physical and life sciences although the approach is also used in social sciences such as psychology, health care and education. ❑ There are two different types of experiment, the laboratory experiment and the field experiment.  Data Collection 35 Instruments 4.6 Experiment ❑ Experimental Research is often used where: ▪ There is time priority in a causal relationship (cause precedes effect), ▪ There is consistency in a causal relationship (a cause will always lead to the same effect), and ▪ The magnitude of the correlation is great. ❑ General tips for carrying out experiments: ▪ Careful preparation is essential and experienced researchers should be consulted before experimentation begins. ▪ Project design, sample selection and measurement of dependent variables are crucial to the success of the research.  Data Collection 36 Instruments 4.6 Experiment ❑ Advantages of experiment: 1. Ideas can be tested in a controlled way; 2. Ideal for investigating causal relationships; 3. Can generalize effects; and 4. Scientifically validated findings, provides greater value to research.  Data Collection 37 Instruments 4.6 Experiment ❑ Disadvantages of experiment : 1. Where human subjects are involved it is generally viewed as unethical; 2. Results may be different in the real world to those discovered in a controlled environment; 3. The influence of all variables can never be eliminated; many different circumstances potentially function as variables that can affect the outcome; 4. Restricted range; 5. Large amount of preparation is required; and 6. Humans may respond to expectations of the experiment not to the experiment itself.  Data Collection 38 Instruments 4.7 Mathematical Modeling ❑ Mathematical modeling can be used to analyze relationships between different variables and to predict possible outcomes, or causal effects. ❑ Experiments can be designed from models of systems, which aim to define links between variables and outcomes. ❑ Advantages of mathematical modeling: 1. Can extend powers of deductive reasoning; 2. Attempts to be objective:- math is 'neutral‘; and 3. Is an aid to causal explanation and can therefore help calculate the effects of actions.  Data Collection 39 Instruments 4.7 Mathematical Modeling ❑ Disadvantages of mathematical modeling: 1. Does not explain why variables are linked to particular outcomes:- can not explain why particular variables are important; 2. Model produced is limited to one situation and therefore may not apply to others; and 3. Inability to distinguish causal from accidental relations. 4. Could be built on pre-conceptions. ANY QUESTIONS PLEASE ??