2024 September Inclusiveness SNIE 102 Chap 1 & 2 Handout PDF

Addis Ababa University College of Education and Behavioral Studies Special Needs/Inclusive Education Course Title: Inclusiveness Course Code: SNIE 1012 August /2024 0 ...

Addis Ababa University College of Education and Behavioral Studies Special Needs/Inclusive Education Course Title: Inclusiveness Course Code: SNIE 1012 August /2024 0  Chapter One 1. Concepts and Principles of Inclusion 1.1. Definition Inclusion means that all people are entitled to full membership of the human family. Fundamentally, inclusion is the principle that: - We are all entitled to participate fully in all aspects of society; - We all have the same rights and responsibilities; - We all have something to contribute. It is the principle which demands valued recognition of all people and the entitlement of all meaningful interaction, involvement and engagement in every part of the complex and multifaceted societies we live in. Inclusion is the right of the individual and the responsibility of society as a whole. Inclusion requires the removal of barriers and social structures which impede participation. It requires proactive policy making, lateral thinking and on-going commitment. The principle of inclusion accepts group of people or the segments of the society such as persons with disability as human diversity. Inclusion is not a one-time project, rather it is a process which is ultimately intended to pass through or achieve the following organically linked steps or processes: - Developing Inclusive plan or policy/legal frameworks; - Developing Inclusive culture with in communities and institutions; and - Evolving inclusive practice. There are three dimensions need to be considered for the effective implementation of inclusive services that accommodate the special needs of persons with disabilities and other vulnerable groups. These are: - Create non-discriminatory attitude within communities towards Persons with disabilities and other vulnerable groups; - Develop accessible and or barrier free physical as well as service environments for equal participation of Persons with disabilities and other vulnerable groups in socio-economic and political activities; and 1  - Empower physical and psychosocial capacity of Persons with disabilities and other vulnerable groups. In accordance to the description of (WHO, 2001) regarding environment in reference to disability, it includes both the physical and service environments as listed briefly below: - Technology and product; - Natural environment and human made change to it; - Social support and relationships; - Attitude; - Policy, system and services. In sum, inclusion refers to the practice or policy of ensuring that all individuals, regardless of their differences (such as race, gender, ability, age, socioeconomic background, etc.), feel valued, respected, and able to participate fully in society, organizations, or environments. In an inclusive setting, everyone has equal access to opportunities and resources, and their unique perspectives and needs are acknowledged and supported. Inclusion often goes hand-in-hand with diversity, as it emphasizes creating environments where diverse individuals feel welcome and empowered to contribute without discrimination or bias. It applies to various contexts, including workplaces, schools, communities, and social settings. 1.2. Principles of Inclusion The principle of inclusion is simple. It is the opposite of exclusion and also alienation. It is the principle that says that whatever benefits accrue to members of a society are the heritage of all people, not just those who are able-bodied. The principles of inclusion guide how we can foster such environments. Here are some key principles of inclusion. Respect for Diversity - Recognize and value individual differences, including culture, race, gender, ability, age, religion, disability and socioeconomic background. - Promote diverse perspectives and celebrate what makes each person unique. 2  Equal Access and Opportunity - Ensure that everyone has access to the same opportunities, resources, and support systems. - Remove barriers that might prevent full participation for some individuals or groups such as persons with disabilities, women, orphans etc. Active Participation - Create spaces where everyone is encouraged and facilitated to contribute and be involved. - Actively seek input from underrepresented or marginalized groups to ensure their voices are heard. Supportive Environment - Foster an environment where individuals feel safe, supported, and respected. - Address discrimination, harassment, and bias to maintain an inclusive atmosphere. Collaboration and Partnership - Promote teamwork, shared decision-making, and partnerships that are inclusive of all stakeholders. - Encourage collaborative efforts that benefit all from diverse perspectives. Adaptability and Flexibility - Be willing to adjust policies, practices, and environments to meet the needs of all individuals. - Accommodate different learning styles, communication needs, and accessibility requirements. Continuous Learning and Improvement - Engage in ongoing learning about inclusion, diversity, and equity issues. - Regularly assess and improve practices to ensure they remain inclusive as society and norms evolve. In conclusion, these principles apply to various sectors; including education, the workplace, community settings, and beyond, helping create environments where everyone can thrive. 3  1.3. Elements of Inclusion As discussed above, inclusion promotes equal participation of individuals in all aspects of public life and development engagements regardless of their difference in gender, ethnicity, religion, language, disability, socioeconomic background and political thoughts. For instance, all children should have the opportunity to learn together, have equal access to the general education system, and receive individual accommodation where needed based on the type of their impairment or other differences. Hence, the following key elements of inclusion should be considered in practicing inclusion. Equity: Ensuring fair treatment, opportunities, and access to resources for everyone, while recognizing and addressing specific needs and disparities Diversity: Embracing and valuing differences such as race, gender, age, ability, disability, religion, socioeconomic status, etc. Belonging: Creating an environment where everyone feels accepted, valued, and part of the community or team. Respect: Acknowledging and honoring the dignity, experiences, and perspectives of all individuals. Collaboration: Fostering teamwork and collective problem-solving by valuing the contributions of every member Representation: Ensuring diverse voices are present and involved in decision-making processes at all levels. Accessibility: Designing environment processes systems that are usable and inclusive for all people, regardless of ability or disability. This includes Universal Design, Reasonable Accommodation, non-discrimination, acceptability and adaptability. Cultural Competence: Developing the awareness, knowledge, and skills to engage effectively with people from different cultures and backgrounds Open Communication: Encouraging dialogue, listening to diverse perspectives, and addressing concerns or challenges related to inclusion. Accountability: Holding individuals and organizations responsible for creating and maintaining an inclusive environment, including addressing biases and discrimination In sum, these elements together foster a culture where everyone can contribute fully and feel valued within the community or organization by eliminating all forms of discrimination. 4  1.4. Features of Inclusion and Inclusive Environment The key features of inclusion encompass a range of principles and practices that ensure equitable participation and representation for all individuals. The following are the core features of inclusion. Diversity Representation: Inclusion recognizes and values the presence of individuals from diverse backgrounds, including differences in race, gender, culture, abilities, disabilities, sexual orientation, age, and socioeconomic status. Equal Access: Everyone should have access to opportunities, resources, and support systems without facing barriers related to discrimination or bias. This includes education, employment, healthcare, and other social services. Respect and Dignity: Individuals are treated with respect and dignity, regardless of their differences. Inclusive environments foster mutual respect and empathy. Participation and Belonging: Inclusion ensures that all individuals feel they belong and are able to fully participate in decision-making processes, social activities, and organizational functions. Their contributions are recognized and valued. Non-Discrimination: Inclusive environments actively work against discrimination and bias, whether intentional or unconscious. This requires policies and practices that promote fairness and challenge inequality. Support for Individual Needs: Inclusion recognizes that individuals have unique needs and may require different levels of support to thrive. This might include accommodations for disabilities, flexible work arrangements, or language support. Cultural Competence: Organizations and communities that practice inclusion foster an understanding of and respect for cultural differences. This requires ongoing learning and adaptation to ensure policies and practices are sensitive to diverse cultural perspectives. Collaboration and Teamwork: Inclusion encourages collaboration, where people from different backgrounds and experiences work together effectively. Inclusive environments emphasize teamwork, communication, and the sharing of ideas. Empowerment and Voice: In inclusive spaces, individuals are empowered to express their opinions, ideas, and concerns. Everyone’s voice is heard, and feedback is valued and acted upon. 5  Accountability and Continuous Improvement: Inclusive organizations are committed to holding themselves accountable for maintaining inclusive practices. This involves continuous assessment, addressing gaps, and improving policies to foster a more inclusive environment. These features together create environments where diversity is embraced, and everyone feels respected, supported, and valued. This kind of environment is known as inclusive environment characterized by different approaches and features. Inclusive environment is characterized by the following features that revolve around the formation of accommodative and barrier free atmosphere. Inclusive environment is, therefore, social, physical and institutional/service environment that: - Members of the society or a certain group such as family feel respected by and connected to one another. - Welcomes all people, regardless of their difference in disability, gender, language, religion, ethnicity, socioeconomic background and other forms of vulnerabilities recognizing and using their potential skills and abilities. - Is respectful, supportive, and equalizing. - Reaches out to and includes individuals with disabilities and other vulnerable groups at all levels of services and community life. - Is adjusted to individuals’ needs. - Acknowledges individual difference believing that it is a source of richness and diversity, and not a problem. - Encourages continuous process of changes directed towards strengthening different ways of participation of all members of the community. - Develop culture, policy and practice which meets pupils’ diversities, towards identifying and removing obstacles in public life and services. 6  1.5. Why is Inclusion Important? Inclusion is important for several reasons, as it benefits individuals, organizations, and society as a whole as listed hereunder. Promotes Equality and Fairness − Inclusion ensures that everyone has equal access to opportunities, resources, and decision-making, regardless of their background or characteristics. This reduces systemic inequalities and promotes fairness. Enhances Innovation and Creativity − Diverse perspectives foster creativity and innovation. Inclusive environments allow people from different backgrounds, with unique experiences and ideas, to contribute, leading to more innovative problem-solving and better decision-making. Boosts Engagement and Productivity − When individuals feel valued and included, they are more likely to be engaged, motivated, and productive. This leads to higher performance in educational settings, workplaces, and communities. Improves Social Cohesion − Inclusion fosters a sense of belonging, reduces discrimination and social tension, and encourages respect and understanding between different groups. This promotes social harmony and cooperation Reflects Moral and Ethical Values − Inclusion aligns with the principles of human dignity and respect. It is a moral imperative to ensure that everyone has the opportunity to thrive, free from prejudice or exclusion. Better Outcomes for All - Whether in education, health, or employment, inclusion leads to better outcomes for individuals and communities. Inclusive policies and practices address systemic barriers and ensure that marginalized or disadvantaged groups can fully participate and succeed. 7 On the other hand, the rationale for inclusion can be justified by the following foundations taking their advantages into account. Educational Foundations − Children do better academically, psychologically and socially in inclusive settings. − A more efficient use of education resources. − Decreases dropouts and repetitions. − Teachers’ competency (knowledge, skills, collaboration, satisfaction). Social Foundation − Segregation teaches individuals to be fearful, ignorant and breed prejudice. − All individuals need an education that will help them develop relationships and prepare them for life in the wider community. − Only inclusion has the potential to reduce fear and to build friendship, respect and understanding. Legal Foundations − All individuals have the right to learn and live together. − Human being shouldn’t be devalued or discriminated against by being excluded or sent away because of their disability. − There are no legitimate reasons to separate children for their education. Economic Foundation − Inclusive education has economic benefit, both for individual and for society. − Inclusive education is more cost-effective than the creation of special schools across the country. − Children with disabilities go to local schools. − Reduce wastage of repetition and dropout. Children with disabilities live with their family and use community infrastructure. − It facilitates better employment and job creation opportunities for persons with disabilities. In sum, inclusion is a key to creating equitable, diverse, and thriving environments where everyone has the chance to succeed and contribute to their fullest potential. 8  Chapter Two 2. The Challenges for Inclusion and the Historical and Societal Context of Exclusion for Persons with Disabilities and other Marginalized Groups 2.1. Understanding Disability and Vulnerability 2.1.1. Disability Regardless of the existence of a number of groups of people in a society who are marginalized and excluded from socioeconomic and political activities due to different impediments, the following rationales signify our understanding and involvement in the issues related to disability. Firstly, nowadays there is a conviction that impairment is a human diversity, naturally occurring event, a fact of life and a reality in any society. Secondly, more than one billion persons in the world have some form of disability. This corresponds to about 15% of the world’s population (World Health Organisation [WHO, 2011]). The majority of people with disabilities (80%) live in low‐ and middle‐income countries and disability is believed to affect disproportionately the most disadvantaged sector of the population (Banks, Kuper, & Polack, 2017). It is estimated that 17.6% of the total population of Ethiopia live with various types of impairments (WHO, 2011). Thirdly, even though disability became a human right issue that laid the adoption of the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities in 2006, People with disabilities are more likely to experience a range of exclusions, including from employment, education, health care access and social participation (WHO, 2011). For instance, even though Ethiopia ratified this Convention on June 1st/2010, in accordance to the Federal Ministry of Education Annual Statistical data of 2022/2023, more than 89% of school age children with disabilities are out of school. Fourthly, it is believed that development is all inclusive and participatory. Hence no development of a given country can be achieved without the participation of persons with disabilities. However, people with disabilities are more likely to experience poverty because disability causes poverty, but also because people who are poor are more likely to become disabled (WHO, 2011). In 2004, the World Bank estimated the global GDP loss due to disability to be between $1.71 9 trillion and $2.23 trillion annually (Metts & Mondiale, 2004). Hence, globally inclusive development was promoted believing that it includes and involves everyone, especially those who are marginalized and often discriminated against (United Nations Development Programme, 2010). On the other hand, understanding the concept of disability varies between cultures and evolves with in a culture over time. People are using the two key terms, impairments and disability interchangeably but there is a visible conceptual distinction between these terms as described hereunder: Impairment Impairment is the “purely factual absence of or loss of functioning in a body part.” Hence, the term impairment is used to notify the physical condition of a person such as visual, physical, hearing, and intellectual disabilities. It may result in activity limitation based on the degree/ severity, type and onset of the impairment. The issue of disability and impairment is not yet being appropriately understood and treated by the society particularly in the low-income countries including Ethiopia. As a result, the cause of impairment is not properly comprehended due to the reason that people still believe that impairment is caused by curse, sin and wrath of God. Even though some causes of impairment are still unknown, scientific research conducted on the issue confirmed that the cause of impairment is classified into 2 major categories as described hereunder. Biological Under this category of the cause of impairment, genetically induced factors are commonly known reasons. These include: - Abnormalities in genes and genetic inheritance that may cause intellectual disability, down syndrome and other multiple impairments on children. - Sometimes, diseases, illnesses, and over-exposure to x-rays can cause a genetic disorder. - Pre-term and underweight birth also may result in different forms of impairment. Environmental The adverse effect of poverty and starvation such malnutrition, lack of access to health care and treatment etc. may cause impairment to the child during pre- and- postnatal period. The use of 10 drugs, alcohol, tobacco, the exposure to certain toxic chemicals and illnesses, toxoplasmosis, cytomegalovirus, rubella and syphilis by a pregnant mother can cause intellectual disability and other types of impairment to the child. Childhood diseases such as a whooping cough, measles, and chicken pox may lead to meningitis and encephalitis. This can cause damage to the brain of the child. Toxic material such as lead and mercury can damage the brain too. Unfortunate life accident such as drowning, car accidents, falls, landmines, war, etc. can result in people losing their sight, hearing, limbs and other vital parts of their body. Regardless of the existence of a number of types of impairments, the commonly known and major kinds of impairments caused by the factors stated above are listed below. - Visual impairment (Generic terminology for blindness and low vision). - Hearing Impairment (Generic terminology for deafness and hard of hearing). - Specific Learning Disability (Dyslexia, Dysgraphia and Dyscalculia). - Speech and Language Impairments including fluency disorder - Autism Spectrum Disorder - Emotional and Behavioral Disorders - Intellectual Disability - Physical Impairments - Health related impairments such as: chronic Heart disease, HIV AIDS, Asthma, and Diabetes. - Multiple Impairment such as Deaf blindness Disability Disability is an umbrella term, covering impairments, activity limitations and participation restrictions. The Preamble to the United Nation Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UNCRPD) acknowledges that disability is “an evolving concept,” but also stresses that “disability results from the interaction between persons with impairments and attitudinal and environmental barriers that hinder their full and effective participation in society on an equal basis with others.” An impairment becomes disabling when individuals are prevented from participating fully in society because of social, political, economic, environmental, or cultural factors. 11  2.1.2. Evolution of the Concept of Disability (Model of Disability) As disability is an evolving concept, it became the point of discourse among concerned scholars, social scientists, disability movement advocates and politicians. The last three decades have been crucial for defining disability versus impairment and for the development of disability rights in the United States and worldwide. Important progress was observed in understanding disability as a civil rights issue which became a foundation for realizing that our world was designed without regard for disability (Kristiansen, Vehmas, Shakespeare, 2009, and Carlson, Murray, 2021). Hence, disability gradually became undeniable agenda to be mainstreamed in international and domestic policy and legal frameworks including human rights instruments considering the fact that disability is social and political construct and impairment is the individual issue. However, people’s attitude towards persons with disabilities affected negatively and positively the life of persons with disabilities that resulted in exclusion and inclusion of persons with disabilities in all aspects of life of the society respectively. In order to understand how disability is currently viewed, is helpful to look at the way the concept of disability or the views and treatments of people towards persons with disabilities have been evolved overtime as described below. Charity Model According to the Charity model, people may view persons with disabilities as lacking capacity to live independently or live together with other people without disabilities, with the implication that they must be ‘cared for’ in separate facilities from the rest of the community and that they are unable to make their own decisions. Diagram: PWDs outside of society and society giving to PWDs 12  Medical Approach According to the Medical model, people may believe that persons with disabilities need to be ‘cured’ or need to be treated through medical interventions before they can actively join or participate in the community. In practice, this means that most persons with disabilities cannot access equally opportunities for participation in society. Diagram: PWDs outside of society and PWDs should adapt to fit Society Social Approach The social model introduces a very different thinking: disability is recognized as the consequence of the interaction of the individual with an environment that does not accommodate individual’s differences. Under the Social model, the focus is on removing barriers so that persons with disabilities have the same opportunities to participate as others. Society needs to change to eliminate physical, social and communication barriers that hinder participation in the community. With the social model, disability is not a “mistake” of an individual with disability, but rather an element of diversity within a society. Oliver cited in (Shakespeare & Watson, 2002), described the ideological and or theoretical perspective of social model as follows In our view, it is society which disables physically impaired people. Disability is something imposed on top of our impairments by the way we are unnecessarily isolated and excluded from full participation in society. Disabled people are therefore an oppressed group in society. To understand this, it is necessary to grasp the distinction between the physical impairment and the social situation, called ‘disability’, of people with such impairment. Thus, we define impairment as lacking all or part of a limb, or having a defective limb, organism or mechanism of the 13  body and disability as the disadvantage or restriction of activity caused by a contemporary social organisation which takes little or no account of people who have physical impairments and thus excludes them from participation in the mainstream of social activities. Diagram: PWD as part of society PWD Rights-Based Approach The human Rights-based model of disability builds on the social approach by acknowledging persons with disabilities as subjects of rights and the State and others as having responsibilities to respect these persons. Under the Rights-based model, persons with disabilities are recognized as having the right to equal opportunities and participation in society. Accordingly, everyone has a responsibility to promote, protect and ensure that this right is actualized. Further, persons with disabilities are viewed as having the capacity to claim their rights and make decisions that affect their lives. 2.2. Vulnerability 2.2.1. Definition and Types of Vulnerability The term vulnerability refers to state of being exposed to the possibility of being attacked or harmed, either physically or emotionally. Accordingly, vulnerable groups belong to the people who are physically and emotionally hurt and attacked as a result of various forms of social injustice and malpractices. In other words, Vulnerability refers to the susceptibility or weakness that can be exploited or harmed. The term is used in various contexts, as described below. 14  Emotional or Psychological Vulnerability This Refers to a person's openness to being emotionally hurt or affected. It can occur when individuals express their feelings or put themselves in situations where they could be emotionally impacted. Social or Economic Vulnerability This also describes the condition of individuals or groups that are at higher risk of facing difficulties due to social, economic, or environmental factors, such as poverty, inequality, or lack of resources. Physical Vulnerability This kind of vulnerability is usually attributed to natural disasters and geographical location of a certain area. Hence, in disaster management, this refers to the extent to which a person, system, or structure is at risk of being physically harmed by external threats, like natural disasters. Vulnerability is classified into the following, but not limited categories as discussed below: Physical Vulnerability The physical vulnerability of an area also depends on its geographic proximity to the source and origin of the disasters e.g. if an area lies near the coast lines, fault lines, unstable hills etc. Economic Vulnerability Economic vulnerability of a community can be assessed by determining how varied its sources of income are, the ease of access and control over means of production (e.g. farmland, livestock, irrigation, capital etc.), adequacy of economic fallback mechanisms and the availability of natural resources in the area. Social Vulnerability - The degree to which social factors (poverty, lack of education, social exclusion) make certain groups more susceptible to harm, Examples: Vulnerability of marginalized communities, people with disabilities, or elderly individuals in crisis situations. - A socially vulnerable community has weak family structures, lack of leadership for decision making and conflict resolution, unequal participation in decision making, weak or no community organizations, and the one in which people are discriminated on racial, ethnic, linguistic or religious basis. 15  Attitudinal Vulnerability Community, which has negative attitude towards change and lacks initiative in life resultantly become more and more dependent on external support. This brings about disunity and individualism in the society. Thus, they become victims of conflicts, hopelessness and pessimism which reduce their capacity of coping with a disaster. Emotional/Psychological Vulnerability − This vulnerability refers to a state of sense or experience in which individuals feel open to emotional harm or distress. Examples: Fear of rejection, expressing deep emotions, or trusting others. Cultural Vulnerability − This kind of vulnerability can be described as the risk of losing cultural identity or practices due to external influences or suppression. Examples: Indigenous communities losing their languages or traditions due to colonization or globalization. 2.2.2. Causes of Vulnerability Even though the causes of vulnerability vary depending on the context such as social, physical, economic and other domains, the following factors can contribute for vulnerability across different domains stated above. Economic Factors a) Poverty: Individuals with low income or financial instability are more vulnerable to risks like unemployment, health crises, and inadequate housing. b) Unemployment: Lack of stable employment increases vulnerability to economic shocks and limits access to resources. c) Inequality: Economic disparities between groups can make certain populations more vulnerable to harm or exploitation. 16 Social Factors a) Social Exclusion: Marginalized groups, including minorities or people with disabilities, often face higher levels of vulnerability due to exclusion from social, political, or economic opportunities. b) Lack of Education: Lower educational attainment can limit access to opportunities and increase vulnerability to exploitation or harm. c) Cultural Norms: Cultural factors like gender roles or discrimination can make certain groups more vulnerable, especially women with disabilities. Environmental Factors a) Geographic Location: People living in areas prone to natural disasters (earthquakes, floods, droughts) or extreme weather conditions are more physically vulnerable. b) Climate Change: Environmental degradation, rising sea levels, and extreme weather events increase vulnerability, especially for coastal and agricultural communities. c) Pollution and Habitat Destruction: Industrial activities that pollute air, water, and soil can make people and ecosystems vulnerable to health hazards and loss of biodiversity. Health Factors a) Chronic Illness or Impairment: Individuals with pre-existing health conditions are more vulnerable to additional health risks. b) Limited Healthcare Access: Inadequate access to healthcare services increases vulnerability to preventable diseases and health complications. c) Aging Population: Older individuals often have higher vulnerability due to weakened immune systems, mobility issues, and limited income. Psychological Factors a) Trauma or Abuse: Past trauma or experiences of abuse can make individuals emotionally or psychologically vulnerable. b) Mental Health Issues: Conditions like depression, anxiety, or post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) can increase a person's emotional vulnerability. c) Lack of Social Support: Individuals who lack strong social networks or relationships are more vulnerable to stress, isolation, and mental health challenges. 17 Political and Institutional Factors a) Weak Governance: In countries or regions with weak governance, corruption, or poor law enforcement, individuals are more vulnerable to exploitation, human rights violations, and violence. b) War and Conflict: Armed conflicts, political instability, and violence increase vulnerability, especially for civilians in war-torn areas. c) Lack of Legal Protection: Absence of legal frameworks protecting certain groups (e.g., labor laws, human rights) can lead to increased exploitation and vulnerability. Demographic Factors a) Age: Children and the elderly are often more vulnerable to harm, exploitation, or health risks. b) Gender: Women and girls in some societies face increased vulnerability due to gender- based violence, discrimination, or unequal access to resources. c) Migration Status: Refugees and migrants are more vulnerable due to legal uncertainties, lack of resources, and social exclusion. These factors can be used as instruments to identify vulnerable groups who need due attention on the part of the rest of the society and government. Vulnerable groups, therefore, refer to individuals or populations who are at a higher risk of experiencing harm, marginalization, or adverse outcomes due to factors such as social, economic, health, or environmental conditions. These groups often lack the resources, opportunities, or protections needed to cope with risks or crises effectively. Some common vulnerable groups include: Children Why Vulnerable: Children depend on adults for care and protection, making them more susceptible to abuse, neglect, exploitation (such as child labor), and malnutrition. Risks: Child abuse, trafficking, lack of access to education, and poor health outcomes. Elderly Why Vulnerable: Aging individuals often face declining physical health, social isolation, and financial instability, making them vulnerable to neglect, abuse, and health complications. 18 Risks: Elder abuse, poverty, loneliness, chronic illness, and limited mobility. Persons with Disabilities Why Vulnerable: Individuals with physical, intellectual, or mental disabilities may face discrimination, limited access to resources, and difficulty in securing education, employment, healthcare and other public services. Risks: Social exclusion, prejudice and bias, poverty, abuse, deprivation of their rights and lack of accessibility to services and infrastructure. Women and Girls Why Vulnerable: Gender inequality, cultural norms, and discrimination can make women and girls vulnerable to violence, exploitation, and unequal access to education, healthcare, and employment. Risks: Gender-based violence, domestic abuse, early marriage, human trafficking, and unequal pay. Ethnic and Racial Minorities Why Vulnerable: Prejudice, racism, and systemic discrimination can lead to social exclusion, economic inequality, and restricted access to rights, services, and opportunities for ethnic and racial minorities. Risks: Racism, poverty, police violence, limited access to education, and healthcare disparities. Refugees, Migrants, and Displaced Persons Why Vulnerable: People who are displaced due to conflict, persecution, or environmental disasters often face legal uncertainties, lack of basic resources, and difficulty integrating into new societies. Risks: Statelessness, exploitation, human trafficking, poor living conditions, and lack of access to basic services like healthcare and education. People Living in Poverty Why Vulnerable: Individuals in poverty often lack access to basic necessities like food, shelter, healthcare, and education, making them more susceptible to exploitation and harm. 19 Risks: Homelessness, malnutrition, health problems, exploitation, and unemployment. People with Chronic Illnesses or Weakened Immune Systems Why Vulnerable: Individuals with serious or chronic illnesses, such as HIV/AIDS, cancer, or diabetes, may face health complications and stigmatization, especially if resources for their care are limited. Risks: Health complications, social stigma, reduced access to healthcare, and financial strain due to medical costs. Homeless Population Why Vulnerable: Homeless individuals often lack stable housing, access to healthcare, and employment, leaving them exposed to harsh environmental conditions, violence, and exploitation. Risks: Poor health, violence, exploitation, substance abuse, and mental health issues. Rural Populations Why Vulnerable: People living in rural areas may face geographic isolation, lack of infrastructure, limited access to education, healthcare, and employment opportunities. Risks: Poverty, limited healthcare, poor transportation, and economic disadvantage. Prisoners or Formerly Incarcerated Individuals Why Vulnerable: Incarcerated individuals and those recently released often face stigmatization, limited opportunities for employment, and inadequate access to social services. Risks: Recidivism, social isolation, poverty, and mental health challenges. Victims of Human Trafficking Why Vulnerable: People trafficked for forced labor or sexual exploitation are often stripped of their autonomy and subjected to violence, abuse, and severe deprivation. Risks: Physical and sexual abuse, exploitation, trauma, and lack of legal protection. 2.3. Historical background of the inclusion of persons with disabilities applied in education 20 In the postindustrial period legislations and litigations created opportunities for children with disabilities to access education in public schools. The following modalities were applied to teach children with disabilities. Specialized and or Residential Schools These schools were established with an intention to provide educational services in specialized approach only for children with disabilities. Consequently, schools for the deaf, schools for the blind etc. came into being as separate institutions throughout 19th and 20th century. Mainstreaming In the 1960 and 70s special needs education classes were established in public schools with an intention to create least restrictive environment for children with disabilities. Integration The approach was introduced and applied in 1970s with an objective to integrating students with disabilities in general class setting without the change of regular school/education system. In this situation, students with disabilities are required to fit the system. This approach is characterized by the following realities: - System stays the same; - Round pegs for round holes; - Change the child to fit the system; - Make the square peg round; - Child must adapt or fail. Diagram: Integration: 21  Inclusive Education This approach was applied as of the last quarter of 20th century focusing on regular education system change to fit the special educational needs of students with disabilities as discussed in the next section in detail. This approach is characterized by the following factors: - Flexible system; - Children are different; - All children can learn: (Different abilities, Ethnic Groups, Size, Age, Background, Gender, Persons with disabilities); - Change the system to fit the child. Diagram: Inclusive 2.4. Barriers for Inclusion of Persons with Disabilities The categories of barriers that persons with disabilities encounter, which are often exacerbated for those living in rural areas or poor urban settings, include the following: 1. Institutional barriers, which include legislation, practices, or processes that actively prohibit or fail to facilitate access for persons with disabilities. 2. Physical barriers, which prevent access for persons with disabilities to physical environments such as buildings, roads, transportation, and various indoor and outdoor facilities such as schools, housing, medical facilities, sporting venues and workplaces. 3. Informational barriers, which prevent access for persons with disabilities, particularly for those with visual or intellectual impairments, to both the form and content of information that may be provided on websites, brochures, books, television, among many other ways that information is presented in society. 4. Communication barriers, which make it difficult to participate fully in society. 22  Communication barriers for persons with disabilities can include the failure to provide sign language interpretation for deaf persons, inaccessible technology such as television without captioning, or websites that are inaccessible to screen readers used by blind persons. 5. Attitudinal barriers, including negative attitudes and lack of understanding about disability issues of people in society, which present some of the most pervasive barriers to equal access for persons with disabilities. 6. Cultural barriers, which may prevent persons with disabilities from participating fully and having access to community life. Cultural barriers may include myths and stereotypes about disability that are rooted in culture and that generate In many cases persons with disabilities face a multitude of barriers, which compound challenges to the achievement of rights and inclusion in development. For example, in this holistic view of accessibility, challenges a person may face in relation to employment may include challenges in accessing employment, inaccessible transportation, inaccessible buildings, inaccessible workspace and inaccessible human resource policies, among others. 23