Chapter 2: Cognitive and Language Development PDF

chapter 2 COGNITIVE AND LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT chapter outline 1 An Overview of Child developmental theories of Jean Piaget and...

chapter 2 COGNITIVE AND LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT chapter outline 1 An Overview of Child developmental theories of Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky. Development The Brain Learning Goal 1 Define development and Piaget’s Theory explain the main processes, periods, and Vygotsky’s Theory issues in development, as well as links between development and education. 3 Language Development Exploring What Development Is Processes and Periods Learning Goal 3 Identify the key features of Developmental Issues language, biological and environmental Development and Education influences on language, and the typical growth of the child’s language. What Is Language? 2 Cognitive Development Biological and Environmental Influences Learning Goal 2 Discuss the development of How Language Develops the brain and compare the cognitive Ah! What would the world be to us If the children were no more? We should dread the desert behind us Worse than the dark before. —Henry Wadsworth Longfellow American Poet, 19th Century © Ariel Skelley/Blend Images LLC RF www.mhhe.com/santedu6e An Overview of Child Development 29 Connecting with Teachers Donene Polson In this chapter, you will study Lev Vygotsky’s sociocultural cognitive children’s progress. They brainstorm about community resources theory of development. Donene Polson’s classroom reflects that can be used to promote children’s learning. Vygotsky’s emphasis on the importance of collaboration among a Many students come back to tell Donene that experiences in her community of learners. Donene teaches at Washington Elementary classroom made important contributions to their development and School in Salt Lake City, an innovative school that emphasizes the learning. For example, Luisa Magarian reflected on how her experience importance of people learning together (Rogoff, Turkanis, & Bartlett, in Donene’s classroom helped her work with others in high school: 2001). Children as well as adults plan learning activities. Throughout From having responsibility in groups, kids learn how to deal with the day at school, students work in small groups. problems and listen to each other or try to understand different Donene loves working in a school in which students, teachers, points of view. They learn how to help a group work smoothly and and parents work as a community to help children learn (Polson, how to keep people interested in what they are doing.... As coeditor 2001). Before the school year begins, Donene meets with parents of the student news magazine at my high school, I have to balance at each family’s home to prepare for the upcoming year, getting my eagerness to get things done with patience to work with other acquainted and establishing schedules to determine when parents students. (Rogoff, Turkanis, & Bartlett, 2001, pp. 84–85) can contribute to classroom instruction. At monthly teacher-parent As Donene Polson’s story shows, theories of cognitive develop- meetings, Donene and the parents plan the curriculum and discuss ment can form the basis of innovative instructional programs. Preview Examining the shape of children’s development allows us to understand it better. This chapter—one of two on development—focuses on children’s cognitive and language development. Before we delve into these topics, though, we need to explore some basic ideas about development. LG 1  efine development and explain D 1 AN OVERVIEW OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT the main processes, periods, and issues in development, as well as Exploring What Processes and Developmental Development and Development Is Periods Issues Education links ­between development and ­education. Twentieth-century Spanish-born American philosopher George Santayana once reflected, “Children are on a different plane. They belong to a generation and way of feeling properly their own.” Let’s explore what that plane is like. EXPLORING WHAT DEVELOPMENT IS Why study children’s development? As a teacher, you will be responsible for a new wave of children each year in your classroom. The more you learn about children’s DEVELOPMENT development, the more you can understand at what level it is appropriate to teach them. Just what do psychologists mean when they speak of a person’s “development”? Development is the pattern of biological, cognitive, and socioemotional changes that begins at conception and continues through the life span. Most development involves growth, although it also eventually involves decay (dying). PROCESSES AND PERIODS development The pattern of biological, cognitive, and socioemotional processes that begins at conception and The pattern of child development is complex because it is the product of several continues through the life span. Most development processes: biological, cognitive, and socioemotional. Development also can be involves growth, although it also eventually involves described in terms of periods. decay (dying). 30 Chapter 2 Cognitive and Language Development PEANUTS: © United Features Syndicate, Inc. Children are the legacy we Biological, Cognitive, and Socioemotional Processes Biological processes pro- duce changes in the child’s body and underlie brain development, height and weight leave for the time we will gains, motor skills, and puberty’s hormonal changes. Genetic inheritance plays a not live to see. large part. Cognitive processes involve changes in the child’s thinking, intelligence, and —Aristotle language. Cognitive developmental processes enable a growing child to memorize a Greek philosopher, 4th century b.c. poem, imagine how to solve a math problem, come up with a creative strategy, or speak meaningfully connected sentences. Socioemotional processes involve changes in the child’s relationships with other people, changes in emotion, and changes in personality. Parents’ nurturance toward their child, a boy’s aggressive attack on a peer, a girl’s development of assertiveness, and an adolescent’s feelings of joy after getting good grades all reflect socioemo- tional processes in development. Biological, cognitive, and socioemotional processes are intertwined. Consider a child smiling in response to a parent’s touch. This response depends on biological processes (the physical nature of the touch and responsiveness to it), cognitive pro- cesses (the ability to understand intentional acts), and socioemotional processes (the act of smiling often reflects a positive emotional feeling and smiling helps to connect us in positive ways with other human beings). Two rapidly emerging fields are exploring connections across biological, cognitive, and socioemotional processes: ∙ developmental cognitive neuroscience, which explores links between develop- ment, cognitive processes, and the brain (de Haan & Johnson, 2016). For example, later in this chapter you will learn about connections between devel- opmental changes in regions of the brain and children’s thinking. ∙ developmental social neuroscience, which examines connections between socioemotional processes, development, and the brain (Decety & Cowell, 2016; Monahan & others, 2016). Later in this chapter you will read about developmental changes in the brain and adolescents’ risk-taking behavior and peer relations. Periods of Development For the purposes of organization and understanding, we commonly describe development in terms of periods. In the most widely used system of classification, the developmental periods are infancy, early childhood, middle and DEVELOPMENT late childhood, adolescence, early adulthood, middle adulthood, and late adulthood. Infancy extends from birth to 18 to 24 months. It is a time of extreme depen- dence on adults. Many activities are just beginning, such as language development, symbolic thought, sensorimotor coordination, and social learning. Early childhood (sometimes called the “preschool years”) extends from the end of infancy to about 5 years. During this period, children become more self-sufficient, develop school readiness skills (such as learning to follow instructions and identify letters), and spend many hours with peers. First grade typically marks the end of early childhood. Middle and late childhood (sometimes called the “elementary school years”) extends from about 6 to 11 years of age. Children master the fundamental skills of reading, www.mhhe.com/santedu6e An Overview of Child Development 31 Periods of Development Prenatal period Infancy Early childhood Middle and Adolescence (conception to (birth to 18–24 (2–5 years) late childhood (10–12 to birth) months) (6–11 years) 18–21 years) Biological Biological processes Processes Cognitive Cognitive Socioemotional processes Processes Processes Processes of Development FIGURE 1 PERIODS AND PROCESSES OF DEVELOPMENT Development moves through the infancy, early childhood, middle and late childhood, and adolescence periods. These periods of development are the result of biological, cognitive, and socioemotional processes. (Left to Right ) © Brand X Pictures/PunchStock RF; © Digital Vision RF; © Laurence Mouton/Photoalto/PictureQuest RF; © Stockbyte RF; © SW Productions/Getty Images RF writing, and math, achievement becomes a more central theme, and self-control increases. In this period, children interact more with the wider social world beyond their family. Adolescence is the development period that goes from childhood to adulthood, beginning around ages 10 to 12 and ending in the late teens. Adolescence starts with rapid physical changes, including height and weight gains and development of sexual functions. Adolescents intensely pursue independence and seek their own identity. Their thought becomes more abstract, logical, and idealistic. In the 21st century, a transitional period—emerging adulthood, which occurs from approximately 18 to 25 years of age—has been described (Arnett, 2006, 2012, 2015). Experimentation and exploration characterize the emerging adult. At this point in their development, many individuals are still exploring which career path they want to follow, what they want their identity to be, and which lifestyle they want to adopt (for example, being single, cohabiting, or getting married). Adult developmental periods have been described, but we have confined our discussion to the periods most relevant for children’s and adolescents’ education. The child and adolescent periods of human development are shown in Figure 1 along with the processes of development (biological, cognitive, and socioemotional). The interplay of these processes produces the periods of human development. DEVELOPMENTAL ISSUES Despite all of the knowledge that developmentalists have acquired, debate continues about the relative importance of factors that influence the developmental processes 32 Chapter 2 Cognitive and Language Development and about how the periods of development are related. The most important issues in the study of children’s development include nature and nurture, continuity and discontinuity, and early and later experience. Children are busy becoming Nature and Nurture The nature-nurture issue involves the debate about whether development is primarily influenced by nature or by nurture (Belsky & Pluess, 2016). something they have not Nature refers to an organism’s biological inheritance, nurture to its environmental quite grasped yet, experiences. Almost no one today argues that development can be explained by nature or nurture alone. But some (“nature” proponents) claim that the most impor- something which keeps tant influence on development is biological inheritance, and others (“nurture” pro- changing. ponents) claim that environmental experiences are the most important influence. According to the nature proponents, the range of environments can be vast, but —Alastair Reid American poet, 20th century an evolutionary and genetic blueprint produces commonalities in growth and devel- opment (Audesirk, Audesirk, & Byers, 2017; Buss, 2015). We walk before we talk, speak one word before two words, grow rapidly in infancy and less so in early childhood, and experience a rush of sexual hormones in puberty. Extreme environ- ments—those that are psychologically barren or hostile—can stunt development, but nature proponents emphasize the influence of tendencies that are genetically wired into humans. By contrast, other psychologists emphasize the importance of nurture, or envi- ronmental experiences, in development (Burt, Coatsworth, & Masten, 2016). Experiences run the gamut from the individual’s biological environment (nutrition, exercise, medical care, drugs, and physical accidents) to the social environment (family, peers, schools, community, media, and culture) (Gonzales & others, 2016; Pianta, 2016). The epigenetic view states that development is the result of an ongoing, bidi- rectional interchange between heredity and the environment. Let’s look at an exam- ple that reflects the epigenetic view. A baby inherits genes from both parents at conception. During childhood, environmental experiences such as nutrition, stress, learning, child care, and encouragement can modify genetic activity and the activity of the nervous system that directly underlies behavior. Heredity and environment thus operate together—or collaborate—to produce a child’s intelligence, tempera- ment, health, ability to read, and so on (Moore, 2015). Thus, if an attractive, popular, intelligent girl is elected president of her high school senior class, is her success due to heredity or to environment? Of course, the answer is “both.” The relative contributions of heredity and environment are not quantifiable. That is, we can’t say that such-and-such a percentage of nature and such-and-such a percentage of experience make us who we are. Nor is it accurate to say that full genetic expression happens once, at the time of conception or birth, after which we carry our genetic legacy into the world to see how far it takes us. Genes produce proteins throughout the life span, in many different environments. Or they don’t produce these proteins, depending in part on how harsh or nourishing those environments are. In developmental psychologist David Moore’s (2013, 2015) view, the biological systems that generate behaviors are extremely complex but too often these systems have been described in overly simplified ways that can be misleading. Thus, although genetic factors clearly contribute to behavior and psychological processes, they don’t nature-nurture issue Nature refers to an organism’s determine these phenotypes independently from the contexts in which they develop. biological inheritance, nurture to environmental influ- From Moore’s (2013, 2015) perspective, it is misleading to talk about “genes for” ences. The “nature” proponents claim biological inheri- eye color, intelligence, achievement, personality, or other characteristics. Moore tance is the most important influence on development; commented that in retrospect we should not have expected to be able to make the the “nurture” proponents claim environmental experi- giant leap from DNA’s molecules to a complete understanding of human behavior ences are the most important. any more than we should anticipate being able to easily link air molecules in a epigenetic view Development is seen as an ongoing, concert hall with a full-blown appreciation of a symphony’s wondrous experience. bidirectional interchange between heredity and the Imagine for a moment that there is a cluster of genes that are somehow associ- environment. ated with youth violence. (This example is hypothetical because we don’t know of www.mhhe.com/santedu6e An Overview of Child Development 33 any such combination.) The adolescent who carries this genetic mixture might expe- rience a world of loving parents, regular nutritious meals, lots of books, and a series of competent teachers. Or the adolescent’s world might include parental neglect, a neighborhood in which gunshots and crime are everyday occurrences, and inadequate schooling. In which of these environments are the adolescent’s genes likely to manu- facture the biological underpinnings of criminality? Are children completely at the mercy of their genes and environment as they develop? Their genetic heritage and environmental experiences are pervasive influ- ences on their development (Raeff, 2017). However, children not only are the out- comes of their heredity and the environment they experience, but they also can author a unique developmental path by changing the environment. In reality, we are both the creatures and creators of our worlds. We are... the prod- ucts of our genes and environments. Nevertheless,... the stream of causation that shapes the future runs through our present choices… Mind matters... Our hopes, goals, and expectations influence our future. (Myers, 2010, p. 168) Continuity and Discontinuity The continuity-discontinuity issue focuses on the extent to which development involves gradual, cumulative change ­(continuity) or distinct stages (discontinuity). For the most part, developmentalists who emphasize nurture usually describe development as a gradual, continuous pro- cess, like the seedling’s growth into an oak. Those who emphasize nature often describe development as a series of distinct stages, like the change from c­ aterpillar to butterfly. Consider continuity first. A child’s first word, though seemingly an abrupt, dis- continuous event, is actually the result of weeks and months of growth and practice. Puberty, another seemingly abrupt, discontinuous occurrence, is actually a gradual process occurring over several years. Viewed in terms of discontinuity, each person is described as passing through a sequence of stages in which change is qualitatively rather than quantitatively dif- ferent. A child moves at some point from not being able to think abstractly about the world to being able to. This is a qualitative, discontinuous change in develop- ment, not a quantitative, continuous change. Early and Later Experience The early-later experience issue focuses on the degree to which early experiences (especially in infancy) or later experiences are the key determinants of the child’s development. That is, if infants experience harmful circumstances, can those experiences be overcome by later, positive ones? Or are the early experiences so critical—possibly because they are the infant’s first, prototypical experiences—that they cannot be overridden by a later, better environment? The early-later experience issue has a long history and continues to be hotly debated among developmentalists (Kuhn & Lindenberger, 2016). Some developmen- talists argue that unless infants experience warm, nurturing care during the first year or so of life, their development will never quite be optimal (O’Connor, 2016). In contrast, later-experience advocates argue that children are malleable throughout development and that later sensitive caregiving is just as important as earlier sensi- tive caregiving (Masten, 2016). continuity-discontinuity issue The issue regarding Evaluating the Developmental Issues Most developmentalists recognize that it is whether development involves gradual, cumulative unwise to take an extreme position on the issues of nature and nurture, continuity change (continuity) or distinct stages (discontinuity). and discontinuity, and early and later experiences. Development is not all nature or early-later experience issue Involves the degree all nurture, not all continuity or all discontinuity, and not all early or later experi- to which early experiences (especially infancy) or later ences. However, there is still spirited debate about how strongly development is experiences are the key determinants of the child’s influenced by each of these factors (Grigorenko & others, 2016). development. 34 Chapter 2 Cognitive and Language Development DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION In the introductory chapter, we briefly described the importance of engaging in developmentally appropriate teaching practices. Here we expand on this important topic and discuss the concept of splintered development. Developmentally appropriate teaching takes place at a level that is neither too Thinking Back/Thinking Forward difficult and stressful nor too easy and boring for the child’s developmental level (NAEYC, 2009). One of the challenges of developmentally appropriate teaching is New guidelines exist for developmen- that you likely will have students with an age range of several years and a range of tally ­appropriate education Connect to abilities and skills in the classes you teach. Competent teachers are aware of these “Social Contexts and Socioemotional developmental differences. Rather than characterizing students as “advanced,” “aver- Development.” age,” and “slow,” they recognize that their development and ability are complex, and children often do not display the same competence across different skills. Splintered development refers to the circumstances in which development is uneven across domains (Horowitz & others, 2005). One student may have excellent math skills but poor writing skills. Within the area of language, another student may have excellent verbal language skills but not have good reading and writing skills. Yet another student may do well in science but lack social skills. Cognitively advanced students whose socioemotional development is at a level expected for much younger children present a special challenge. For example, a student may excel at science, math, and language but be immature emotionally. Such a child may not have any friends and be neglected or rejected by peers. This student will benefit considerably from having a teacher who helps him or her learn how to manage emotions and behave in more socially appropriate ways. As we discuss development in this chapter and the next, keep in mind how the developmental changes we describe can help you understand the optimal level for teaching and learning. For example, it is not a good strategy to try to push children to read before they are developmentally ready—but when they are ready, reading materials should be presented at the appropriate level. Review, Reflect, and Practice 1 Define development and explain the main processes, periods, and issues in development, as well as links between development and education. REVIEW ∙ What is the nature of development? ∙ What three broad processes interact in a child’s development? What general periods do children go through between birth and the end of adolescence? ∙ What are the main developmental issues? What conclusions can be reached about these issues? ∙ What implications does the concept of development have for the notion of “appropri- ate” learning? REFLECT ∙ Give an example of how a cognitive process could influence a socioemotional p­ rocess in the age of children you plan to teach. Then give an example of how a socioemotional process could influence a cognitive process in this age group. PRAXIS™ PRACTICE 1. Mr. Huxtaby is giving a talk on development to a parent-teacher organization. In his talk, which of the following is he most likely to describe as not being an example of development? a. pubertal change splintered development The circumstances in which b. improvement in memory (continued ) development is uneven across domains. www.mhhe.com/santedu6e Cognitive Development 35 Review, Reflect, and Practice PRAXIS™ PRACTICE (CONTINUED) c. change in friendship d. an inherited tendency to be shy 2. Ms. Halle teaches third grade. Which period of development is likely to be of most interest to her? a. infancy b. early childhood c. middle childhood and late childhood d. adolescence 3. Piaget argued that children progress through a series of cognitive development stages. In contrast, Skinner stressed that individuals simply learn more as time goes on. Which developmental issue is highlighted in their disagreement? a. continuity and discontinuity b. early and later experience c. nature and nurture d. biological and socioemotional development 4. Alexander’s scores on standardized mathematics achievement tests are always very high—among the highest in the nation. In contrast, his scores on reading achievement tests indicate that he is about average. This is an example of a. developmentally appropriate teaching b. early versus later development c. nature versus nurture d. splintered development Please see answer key at end of book.... LG 2  iscuss the development of the D 2 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT brain and compare the cognitive developmental theories of Jean The Brain Piaget’s Theory Vygotsky’s Theory Piaget and Lev Vygotsky. Twentieth-century American poet Marianne Moore said that the mind is “an enchant- ing thing.” How this enchanting thing develops has intrigued many psychologists. First, we explore increasing interest in the development of the brain and then turn to two major cognitive theories—Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s. THE BRAIN Not long ago, scientists thought that our genes primarily determine how our brains are “wired” and that the cells in the brain responsible for processing information just develop on their own with little or no input from environmental experiences. According to that view, whatever brain your genes have provided to you, you are essentially stuck with it. That view of the brain, however, turned out to be wrong. Instead, it is clear that the brain has plasticity and its development depends on contexts and experi- ences children engage in (de Haan & Johnson, 2016; Goddings & Mills, 2017). In the increasingly popular neuroconstructivist view, (a) biological processes (genes, for example) and environmental experiences (enriched or impoverished, for example) influence the brain’s development; (b) the brain has plasticity (the ability neuroconstructivist view Emphasizes that brain to change) and depends on experience; and (c) development of the brain is linked development is influenced by both biological processes closely with cognitive development. These factors constrain or advance the construc- and environmental experiences; the brain has plasticity tion of cognitive skills (Karmiloff-Smith, 2017; Monahan & others, 2016). In other and depends on experience; and brain development is words, what children do can change the development of their brains. linked closely with cognitive development. 36 Chapter 2 Cognitive and Language Development Myelin Sheath Axon Development of Neurons and Brain Regions The number and size of the brain’s nerve endings continue to increase at least into adolescence. Some of the brain’s growth in size also is due to myelination, the process of encasing many cells in the brain with a myelin sheath (see Figure 2). This increases the speed at which infor- mation travels through the nervous system (Fields, 2015). Myelination in brain areas important in focusing attention is not complete until about 10 years of age. The implications for teaching are that children will have difficulty focusing their attention and maintaining it for very long in early childhood, but their attention will improve as they move through the elementary school years. The most extensive increase in myelination, which occurs in the brain’s frontal lobes where reasoning and thinking occur, takes place during adolescence (Galvan & Tottenham, 2016). Another important aspect of the brain’s development at the cellular level is the dramatic increase in connections between neurons (nerve cells). Synapses are tiny gaps between neurons where connections between neurons are made. Researchers have discovered an interesting aspect of synaptic connections. Nearly twice as many of these connections are made than will ever be used (Huttenlocher & Dabholkar, FIGURE 2 MYELINATED NEURON FIBER 1997). The connections that are used become stronger and survive, whereas the unused ones are replaced by other pathways or disappear. In the language of neuro- The myelin sheath, shown in brown, encases the science, these connections are “pruned.” Figure 3 vividly shows the dramatic growth axon (white). This image was produced by an electron microscope that magnified the nerve fiber and later pruning of synapses in the visual, auditory, and prefrontal cortex areas of 12,000 times. What role does myelination play in the the brain. These areas are critical for higher-order cognitive functioning such as brain’s development? learning, memory, and reasoning. Notice that in the prefrontal cortex (where higher- © Steve Gschmeissner/Science Source level thinking and self-regulation take place) it is not until middle to late adolescence that the adult density of the synapses is achieved. Figure 4 shows the location of the brain’s four lobes. As just indicated, growth in the prefrontal cortex (the highest region of the frontal lobes) continues through adolescence. Rapid growth in the temporal lobes (language processing) and parietal DEVELOPMENT lobes (spatial location) occurs from age 6 through puberty. myelination The process of encasing many cells in the brain with a myelin sheath that increases the Brain Development in Middle and Late Childhood Total brain volume stabilizes speed at which information travels through the nervous by the end of middle and late childhood, but significant changes in various structures system. and regions of the brain continue to occur as brain growth tapers off (Wendelken & others, 2016). In particular, the brain pathways and circuitry involving the prefrontal cortex The highest level in the frontal lobes; involved in reasoning, decision making, and self-control. 60 50 40 Synaptic density 30 20 Visual cortex (vision) Auditory cortex (hearing) FIGURE 3 SYNAPTIC DENSITY IN THE Prefrontal cortex (reasoning, HUMAN BRAIN FROM INFANCY TO 10 self-regulation) ADULTHOOD The graph shows the dramatic increase and then pruning of synaptic density for three regions of the 0 brain: visual cortex, auditory cortex, and prefrontal birth 1 year 3 years 11 years adult cortex. Synaptic density is believed to be an important indication of the extent of connectivity 100 200 300 400 500 600 800 1,000 1,500 2,000 3,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000 between neurons. Age in days (from conception) www.mhhe.com/santedu6e Cognitive Development 37 p­ refrontal cortex continue to increase in middle and late childhood. These advances in the prefrontal cortex are linked to children’s Parietal lobe improved attention, reasoning, and cognitive control (Monahan & Frontal lobe others, 2016). Leading researchers in developmental cognitive neuroscience have proposed that the prefrontal cortex likely orchestrates the func- tions of many other brain regions during development (de Haan & Occipital Johnson, 2016). As part of this organizational role, the prefrontal lobe cortex may provide an advantage to neural networks and connec- tions that include the prefrontal cortex. In this view, the prefrontal cortex coordinates which neural connections are the most effective for solving a problem. Links between the changing brain and children’s cognitive development involve activation of some brain areas, with some areas increasing in activation while others decrease (de Haan & Johnson, 2016). One shift in activation that occurs as children Temporal lobe develop in middle and late childhood is from diffuse, larger areas to more focal, smaller areas. This shift is characterized by synaptic pruning in which areas of the brain not being used lose synaptic connections and those being used gain additional connections. The increased focal activation is linked to improved cognitive perfor- FIGURE 4 THE BRAIN’S FOUR LOBES mance, especially in cognitive control, which involves flexible and effective control Shown here are the locations of the brain’s four in a number of areas (Durston & others, 2006). These areas include controlling lobes: frontal, occipital, temporal, and parietal. attention, reducing interfering thoughts, inhibiting motor actions, and flexibility in switching between competing choices (Casey, 2015). Brain Development in Adolescence Along with the rest of the body, the brain is Thinking Back/Thinking Forward changing in adolescence. Earlier we indicated that connections between neurons are A surge of interest surrounds identifica- “pruned” as children and adolescents develop. As a result of this pruning, by the tion of the aspects of the brain that are end of adolescence individuals have “fewer, more selective, more effective connec- involved in intelligence. Connect to tions between neurons than they did as children” (Kuhn, 2009). And this pruning “Individual Variations.” indicates that the activities adolescents engage in and don’t engage in influence which neural connections will be strengthened and which will disappear. Using fMRI brain scans, scientists have recently discovered that adolescents’ brains undergo significant structural changes (Crone, 2017; Monahan & others, 2016). The corpus callosum, where fibers connect the brain’s left and right hemi- spheres, thickens in adolescence, and this improves adolescents’ ability to process information (Chavarria & others, 2014). Earlier we described advances in the devel- opment of the prefrontal cortex in childhood. However, the prefrontal cortex doesn’t finish maturing until the emerging adult years, approximately 18 to 25 years of age, or later (Steinberg, 2015a, b). At a lower, subcortical level, the limbic system, which is the seat of emotions and where rewards are experienced, matures much earlier than the prefrontal cortex and is almost completely developed in early adolescence (Monahan & others, 2016). The limbic system structure that is especially involved in emotion is the amygdala. Figure 5 shows the locations of the corpus callosum, prefrontal cortex, limbic sys- tem, and amygdala. Leading researcher Charles Nelson (2011) points out that although adolescents are capable of very strong emotions, their prefrontal cortex hasn’t adequately developed to the point at which they can control these passions. This means that the brain region for putting the brakes on risky, impulsive behavior is still under construction during corpus callosum The brain region where fibers con- adolescence. Or consider this interpretation of the development of emotion and cogni- nect the left and right hemispheres. tion in adolescence: “early activation of strong ‘turbo-charged’ feelings with a rela- limbic system Brain region that is the seat of emo- tively unskilled set of ‘driving skills’ or cognitive abilities to modulate strong emotions tions and in which rewards are experienced. and motivations” (Dahl, 2004, p. 18). This developmental disjunction may account for increased risk taking and other problems in adolescence (Steinberg, 2015a, b). amygdala The seat of emotions in the brain. 38 Chapter 2 Cognitive and Language Development Prefrontal cortex Corpus callosum Lateralization The cerebral cortex (the highest level of the brain) This “judgment” region reins These nerve fibers connect the in intense emotions but is divided into two halves, or hemispheres (see Figure 6). brain’s two hemispheres; they doesn’t finish developing until Lateralization is the specialization of functions in each ­hemisphere thicken in adolescence to process at least emerging adulthood. of the brain (Francks, 2016). In individuals with an intact information more effectively. brain, there is a specialization of function in some areas. The most extensive research on the brain’s two hemispheres involves language. In most individuals, speech and grammar are localized to the left hemisphere. However, not all lan- guage processing is carried out in the brain’s left hemisphere (Moore, Brendel, & Fiez, 2014). For example, understanding such aspects of language as appropriate use of language in different contexts, evaluation of the emotional expressive- ness of language, and much of humor involves the right hemisphere (Godfrey & Grimshaw, 2016). Also, when indi- viduals lose much of their left hemisphere because of an accident, surgery for epilepsy, or other reasons, the right hemisphere in many cases can reconfigure itself for increased language processing (Xing & others, 2016). Because of the differences in functioning of the brain’s two hemispheres, people commonly use the phrases “left- brained” and “right-brained” to suggest that one hemisphere is dominant. Unfortunately, much of this talk is greatly Limbic system exaggerated. For example, laypeople and the media com- Amygdala A lower, subcortical system in the Limbic system structure brain that is the seat of emotions monly exaggerate hemispheric specialization by claiming especially involved in emotion. and experience of rewards. This that the left brain is logical and the right brain is creative. system is almost completely However, most complex functioning—such as logical and developed in early adolescence. creative thinking—in normal people involves communica- FIGURE 5 THE CHANGING ADOLESCENT tion between both sides of the brain. Scientists who study BRAIN: PREFRONTAL CORTEX, LIMBIC SYSTEM, the brain are typically very cautious when using terms such AMYGDALA, AND CORPUS CALLOSUM as left-brained and right-brained because the brain is more complex than those terms suggest. Plasticity As we have seen, the brain has plasticity (de Haan & Johnson, 2016; lateralization Specialization of functions in each Nagel & Scholes, 2017). Children’s experiences can affect how their brains develop. ­hemisphere of the brain By engaging students in optimal learning environments, you can stimulate brain development. Left hemisphere Right hemisphere The remarkable case of Michael Rehbein illustrates the brain’s plasticity. When Michael was 41/2, he began to experience uncontrollable seizures—as many as 400 a day. Doctors said that the only solution was to remove the left hemisphere of his brain, where the seizures were occurring. Michael had his first major surgery at age 7 and another at age 10. Although recovery was slow, his right hemisphere began to reorganize and eventually took over functions, such as speech, that normally occur in the brain’s left hemisphere (see Figure 7). Individuals like Michael are living proof of the growing brain’s remarkable plasticity and ability to adapt and recover from a loss of brain tissue. The Brain and Children’s Education Unfortunately, too often statements about the implications of brain science for children’s education have been speculative at best and often far removed from what neuroscientists know about the brain (Busso & Pollack, 2015; Gleichgerrcht & others, 2015). We don’t have to look any further than the hype about “left-brained” individuals being more logical and “right-brained” FIGURE 6 THE HUMAN BRAIN’S TWO individuals being more creative to see that links between neuroscience and brain HEMISPHERES education are incorrectly made (Sousa, 1995). The two halves (hemispheres) of the human brain Another commonly promoted link between neuroscience and brain education is are clearly seen in this photograph. that there is a critical, or sensitive, period—a biological window of opportunity—when © Arthur Glauberman/Science Source learning is easier, more effective, and more easily retained than later in development. www.mhhe.com/santedu6e Cognitive Development 39 However, some experts on the development of the brain and learning conclude that the critical period view is exaggerated. One leading neuroscientist even told educators that although children’s brains acquire a great deal of information during the early years, most learning likely takes place after synaptic formation stabilizes, which is after the age of 10 (Goldman-Rakic, 1996). A major issue involving the development of the brain is which comes first, biological changes in the brain or experiences that stimulate these changes? (Lerner, Boyd, & Du, 2008). Consider a study in which the prefrontal cortex thickened and more brain connections formed when adolescents resisted peer pressure (Paus & others, 2008). Scientists have yet to determine whether the brain changes come first or whether the brain changes are the result of experiences with peers, parents, and others. Once again, we encounter the nature/nurture issue that is so prominent in examining children’s and adolescents’ development. Given all of the hype about brain education in the media, what can we con- clude about the current state of knowledge in applying the rapidly increasing research on the brain’s development to education? Based on the current state of knowledge: ∙ Both early and later experiences, including educational experiences, are very important in the brain’s development. Significant changes continue to occur at the cellular and structural level in the brain through adolescence. ∙ Synaptic connections between neurons can change dramatically as a conse- quence of the learning experiences children and adolescents have. Connections (a) between neurons that are used when children focus their attention, remember, and think as they are reading, writing, and doing math are strengthened; those that aren’t used are replaced by other pathways or disappear. ∙ Development at the highest level of the brain—the prefrontal cortex, where such important cognitive processes as thinking, reasoning, and decision mak- ing primarily occur—continues at least through the emerging adult years (Monahan & others, 2016). This development in the prefrontal cortex moves from being more diffuse to more focal and involves increased efficiency of processing information (de Haan & Johnson, 2016). As activation in the pre- frontal cortex becomes more focused, cognitive control increases. This is exemplified in children being able to focus their attention more effectively (b) and ignore distractions while they are learning as they become older. ∙ Despite the increased focal activation of the prefrontal cortex as children FIGURE 7 PLASTICITY IN THE BRAIN’S grow older, changes in the brain during adolescence present a challenge to HEMISPHERES increased cognitive control. In adolescence, the earlier maturation of the lim- (a) Michael Rehbein at 14 years of age. (b) Michael’s bic system and the amygdala, which are involved in processing of emotions, right hemisphere (top) has reorganized to take over and the more drawn-out development of the prefrontal cortex, provide an the language functions normally carried out by explanation of the difficulty adolescents have in controlling their emotions and corresponding areas in the left hemisphere of an their tendency to engage in risk-taking behavior (Monahan & others, 2016). intact brain (bottom). However, the right hemisphere is not as efficient as the left, and more areas of the ∙ Brain functioning occurs along specific pathways and involves integration of brain are recruited to process speech. function. According to leading experts Kurt Fischer and Mary Helen © The Rehbein Family Immordino-Yang (2008), One of the lessons of educational neuroscience, even at this early point in its devel- opment, is that children learn along specific pathways, but they do not act or think in compartments.... On the one hand, they develop their learning along specific pathways defined by particular content, such as mathematics or history, but on the other hand they make connections between those pathways. Reading is an excellent example of how brain functioning occurs along spe- cific pathways and is integrated. Consider a child who is asked by a teacher to read aloud to the class. Input from the child’s eyes is transmitted to the child’s brain, then passed through many brain systems, which translate the patterns of black and white into codes for letters, words, and associations. The output occurs 40 Chapter 2 Cognitive and Language Development in the form of messages to the child’s lips and tongue. The child’s own gift of speech is possible because brain systems are organized in ways that permit language ­processing. These conclusions suggest that education throughout the childhood and adolescent years can benefit children’s and adolescents’ learning and cognitive development (Monahan & others, 2016). Where appropriate throughout the rest of the book, we will describe research involving the develop- ment of the brain and children’s education. PIAGET’S THEORY Poet Noah Perry once asked, “Who knows the thoughts of What are some applications of research on brain devel- a child?” More than anyone, the famous Swiss psychologist opment to children’s ­education? Jean Piaget (1896–1980) knew. © Corbis/Age Fotostock RF Cognitive Processes What processes do children use as they construct their knowl- edge of the world? Piaget stressed that these processes are especially important in this regard: schemas, assimilation and accommodation, organization, and equilibration. Schemas Piaget (1954) said that as the child seeks to construct an understanding of the world, the developing brain creates schemas. These are actions or mental representations that organize knowledge. In Piaget’s theory, behavioral schemas (physical activities) characterize infancy, and mental schemas (cognitive activities) develop in childhood. A baby’s schemas are structured by simple actions that can be performed on objects, such as sucking, looking, and grasping. Older children have schemas that include strategies and plans for solving problems. For example, a 6-year-old might have a schema that involves the strategy of classifying objects by size, shape, or color. By the time we have reached adulthood, we have constructed an enormous number of diverse schemas, ranging from how to drive a car, to how to balance a budget, to the concept of fairness. Assimilation and Accommodation To explain how children use and adapt their schemas, Piaget offered two concepts: assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation occurs when children incorporate new information into their existing schemas. Accommodation occurs when children adjust their schemas to fit new information and experiences. Consider an 8-year-old girl who is given a hammer and nail to hang a picture on the wall. She has never used a hammer, but from observing others do this she realizes that a hammer is an object to be held, that it is swung by the handle to hit the nail, and that it usually is swung a number of times. Recognizing each of these things, she fits her behavior into this schema she already has (assimilation). But the hammer is heavy, so she holds it near the top. She swings too hard and the nail What are some applications of research on brain ­development to children’s education? bends, so she adjusts the pressure of her strikes. These adjustments reflect her ability © Rubberball Productions/Getty Images RF to slightly alter her conception of the world (accommodation). Just as both assimila- tion and accommodation are required in this example, so are they required in many schemas In Piaget’s theory, actions or mental of the child’s thinking challenges (see Figure 8). ­representations that organize knowledge. assimilation Piagetian concept of the incorporation of Organization To make sense out of their world, said Piaget, children cognitively new information into existing knowledge (schemas). organize their experiences. Organization in Piaget’s theory is the grouping of iso- accommodation Piagetian concept of adjusting lated behaviors and thoughts into a higher-order system. Continual refinement ­schemas to fit new information and experiences. of this organization is an inherent part of development. A boy with only a vague organization Piaget’s concept of grouping isolated behav- idea about how to use a hammer also may have a vague idea about how to use iors into a higher-order, more smoothly functioning cognitive other tools. After learning how to use each one, he relates these uses, organizing system; the grouping or arranging of items into categories. his knowledge. www.mhhe.com/santedu6e Cognitive Development 41 Equilibration and Stages of Development Equilibration is a mechanism that Piaget proposed to explain how chil- dren shift from one stage of thought to the next. The shift occurs as children experience cognitive conflict, or disequi- librium, in trying to understand the world. Eventually, they resolve the conflict and reach a balance, or equilibrium, of thought. Piaget pointed out that there is considerable move- ment between states of cognitive equilibrium and disequi- librium as assimilation and accommodation work in concert to produce cognitive change. For example, if a child believes that the amount of a liquid changes simply because the liq- uid is poured into a container with a different shape—for instance, from a container that is short and wide into a con- Assimilation occurs when people Accommodation occurs when people tainer that is tall and narrow—she might be puzzled by such incorporate new information into their adjust their knowledge schemas to issues as where the “extra” liquid came from and whether existing schematic knowledge. How new information. How might the girl there is actually more liquid to drink. The child will eventu- might this 8-year-old girl first attempt adjust her schemas regarding hammers ally resolve these puzzles as her thinking becomes more to use the hammer and nail, based on and nails during her successful effort to advanced. In the everyday world, the child is constantly her preexisting schematic knowledge hang the picture? faced with such counterexamples and inconsistencies. about these objects? Assimilation and accommodation always take the child FIGURE 8 ASSIMILATION AND ACCOMMODATION to a higher ground. For Piaget, the motivation for change is an internal search for equilibrium. As old schemas are adjusted and new schemas are developed, the child organizes and reorganizes the old and new schemas. Eventually, the organization is fundamentally different from the old organization; it is a new way of thinking. Thus, the result of these processes, according to Piaget, is that individuals go through four stages of development. A different way of understanding the world makes one stage more advanced than another. Cognition is qualitatively different in one stage compared with another. In other words, the way children reason at one stage is different from the way they reason at another stage. Piagetian Stages Each of Piaget’s stages is age-related and consists of distinct ways of thinking. Piaget proposed four stages of cognitive development: sensorimo- tor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational (see Figure 9). The Sensorimotor Stage The sensorimotor stage, which lasts from birth to about 2 years of age, is the first Piagetian stage. In this stage, infants construct an under- DEVELOPMENT standing of the world by coordinating their sensory experiences (such as seeing and equilibration A mechanism that Piaget proposed to hearing) with their motor actions (reaching, touching)—hence the term sensorimotor. explain how children shift from one stage of thought to At the beginning of this stage, infants show little more than reflexive patterns to the next. The shift occurs as children experience cogni- adapt to the world. By the end of the stage, they display far more complex senso- tive conflict, or disequilibrium, in trying to understand the rimotor patterns. world. Eventually, they resolve the conflict and reach a balance, or equilibrium, of thought. The Preoperational Stage The preoperational stage is the second Piagetian stage. Lasting approximately from about 2 to 7 years of age, it is more symbolic than sensorimotor stage The first Piagetian stage, lasting from birth to about 2 years of age, when infants con- sensorimotor thought but does not involve operational thought. However, it is ego- struct an understanding of the world by coordinating centric and intuitive rather than logical. sensory experiences with motor actions. Preoperational thought can be subdivided into two substages: symbolic function and intuitive thought. The symbolic function substage occurs roughly between 2 preoperational stage The second Piagetian stage, last- and 4 years of age. In this substage, the young child gains the ability to represent ing from about 2 to 7 years of age, when symbolic thought mentally an object that is not present. This stretches the child’s mental world to new increases and operational thought is not yet present. dimensions. Expanded use of language and the emergence of pretend play are other symbolic function substage The first substage of examples of an increase in symbolic thought during this early childhood substage. preoperational thought, occurring between about 2 and Young children begin to use scribbled designs to represent people, houses, cars, 4 years of age; the ability to represent an object not clouds, and many other aspects of the world. Possibly because young children are present develops and symbolic thinking increases; ego- not very concerned about reality, their drawings are fanciful and inventive (Winner, centrism is present. 42 Chapter 2 Cognitive and Language Development Sensorimotor Preoperational Concrete Operational Formal Operational Stage Stage Stage Stage The infant constructs an The child begins to represent The child can now reason The adolescent reasons understanding of the world the world with words and logically about concrete in more abstract, idealistic, and by coordinating sensory images. These words and events and classify objects into logical ways. experiences with physical images reflect increased different sets. actions. An infant progresses symbolic thinking and go from reflexive, instinctual action beyond the connection of at birth to the beginning of sensory information and symbolic thought toward the physical action. end of the stage. Birth to 2 Years of Age 2 to 7 Years of Age 7 to 11 Years of Age 11 Years of Age Through Adulthood FIGURE 9 THE FOUR PIAGETIAN STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT (Left to Right ) © Stockbyte/Getty Images RF; © BananaStock/PunchStock RF; © image100/Corbis RF; © Purestock/Getty Images RF intuitive thought substage The second substage of 1986). One 31/2-year-old looked at the scribble he had just drawn and described it preoperational thought, lasting from about 4 to 7 years as a pelican kissing a seal (see Figure 10a). In the elementary school years, children’s of age. Children begin to use primitive reasoning and drawings become more realistic, neat, and precise (see Figure 10b). want to know the answer to all sorts of questions. They Even though young children make distinct progress in this substage, their pre- seem sure about their knowledge in this substage but operational thought still has an important limitation: egocentrism. Egocentrism is are unaware of how they know what they know. the inability to distinguish between one’s own perspective and someone else’s perspective. Piaget and Barbel Inhelder (1969) initially studied young children’s egocentrism by devising the three mountains task (see Figure 11). The child walks around the model of the mountains and becomes familiar with what the mountains look like from different perspectives. The child also can see that there are different objects on the mountains. The child then is seated on one side of the table on which the mountains are placed. The experimenter moves a doll to different locations around the table. At each location, the child is asked to select from a series of photos the one that most accurately reflects the view the doll is seeing. Children in the preoperational stage often pick the view that reflects where they are sitting rather than the doll’s view. What further cognitive changes take place in the preop- (a) (b) erational stage? The intuitive thought substage is the sec- FIGURE 10 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGES IN CHILDREN’S ond substage of preoperational thought, starting at about 4 DRAWINGS years of age and lasting until about 7 years of age. At this (a) A 3½-year-old’s symbolic drawing. Halfway into this drawing, the 3½-year-old substage, children begin to use primitive reasoning and want artist said it was “a pelican kissing a seal.” (b) This 11-year-old’s drawing is neater to know the answers to all sorts of questions. Piaget called and more realistic but also less inventive. this substage “intuitive” because children seem so sure about www.mhhe.com/santedu6e Cognitive Development 43 Model of Mountains C D B Photo 1 Photo 2 Photo 3 Photo 4 A (View from A) (View from B) (View from C) (View from D) Child seated here FIGURE 11 PIAGET’S THREE MOUNTAINS TASK The mountain model on the far left shows the child’s perspective from view A, where he or she is sitting. The four squares represent photos showing the mountains from four different viewpoints of the model—A, B, C, and D. The experimenter asks the child to identity the photo in which the mountains look as they would from position B. To identity the photo correctly, the child has to take the perspective of a person sitting at spot B. Invariably, a child who thinks in a preoperational way cannot perform this task. When asked what a view of the mountains looks like from position B, the child selects Photo 1, taken from location A (the child’s own view at the time) instead of Photo 2, the correct view. their knowledge and understanding yet are unaware of how they know what they know. That is, they say they know something but know it without the use of ratio- nal thinking. Many of these preoperational examples show a characteristic of thought called centration, which involves focusing (or centering) attention on one characteristic to the exclusion of all others. Centration is most clearly present in preoperational children’s lack of conservation, the idea that some characteristic of an object stays the same even though the object might change in appearance. For example, to adults it is obvious that a certain amount of liquid stays the same regardless of a container’s shape. But this is not obvious at all to young children. Rather, they are struck by the height of the liquid in the container. In this type of con- servation task (Piaget’s most famous), a child is presented with two identical beakers, each filled to the same level with liquid (see Figure 12). The child is asked if the beakers have the same amount of liquid. The child usually says yes. Then the liquid from one beaker is poured into a third beaker, which is taller and thinner. The child now is asked if the amount of liquid in the tall, thin beaker is equal to the liquid that remains in the second original beaker. Children younger than 7 or 8 usually say no. They justify their answer by referring to the differing height or width of the beakers. Older children usually answer yes. They justify their answers appropriately: If you poured the liquid back, the amount would still be the same. In Piaget’s view, failing the conservation of liquid task indicates that the child is at the preoperational stage of thinking. Passing the test suggests the child is at the concrete operational stage of thinking. According to Piaget, preoperational children also cannot perform what he called operations. In Piaget’s theory, operations are mental representations that are reversible. As in the beaker task, preschool children have difficulty understanding that reversing an action brings about the original conditions from which the action began. These two examples should further help you understand Piaget’s concepts of opera- tions. A young child might know that 4 + 2 = 6 but not understand that the reverse, 6 − 2 = 4, is true. Or let’s say a preschooler walks to his friend’s house each day but always gets a ride home. If asked to walk home from his friend’s house, he centration Focusing, or centering, attention on one probably would reply that he didn’t know the way because he never had walked characteristic to the exclusion of all others; characteristic home before. of preoperational thinking. Some developmentalists do not believe Piaget was entirely correct in his esti- conservation The idea that some characteristic of an mate of when conservation skills emerge. For example, Rochel Gelman (1969) object stays the same even though the object might trained preschool children to attend to relevant aspects of the conservation task. This change in appearance; a cognitive ability that develops improved their conservation skills. in the concrete operational stage, according to Piaget. 44 Chapter 2 Cognitive and Language Development (a) A B C (b) A B C FIGURE 12 PIAGET’S CONSERVATION TASK The beaker test is a well-known Piagetian test to determine whether a child can think operationally—that is, can mentally reverse actions and show conservation of the substance. (a) Two identical beakers are presented to the child. Then, the experimenter pours the liquid from B into C, which is taller and thinner than A or B. (b) The child is asked if these beakers (A and C) have the same amount of liquid. The preoperational child says “no.” When asked to point to the beaker that has more liquid, the preoperational child points to the tall, thin beaker. © Tony Freeman/PhotoEdit Further, children show considerable variation in attaining conservation skills. Researchers have found that 50 percent of children develop conservation of mass at 6 to 9 years of age, 50 percent demonstrate conservation of length at 4 to 9 years of age, 50 percent show conservation of area at 7 to 9 years of age, and 50 percent of children don’t attain conservation of weight until 8 to 10 years of age (Horowitz & others, 2005; Sroufe & others, 1992). Yet another characteristic of preoperational children is that they ask a lot of questions. The barrage begins around age 3. By about 5, they have just about exhausted the adults around them with “Why?” “Why” questions signal the emer- gence of the child’s interest in figuring out why things are the way they are. Following is a sampling of 4- to 6-year-olds’ questions (Elkind, 1976): “What makes you grow up?” “Who was the mother when everybody was a baby?” “Why do leaves fall?” “Why does the sun shine?” The Concrete Operational Stage The concrete operational stage, the third Piagetian stage of cognitive development, lasts from about 7 to about 11 years of age. Concrete operational thought involves using operations. Logical reasoning replaces intuitive reasoning, but only in concrete situations. Classification skills are present, but abstract problems go unsolved. A concrete operation is a reversible mental action pertaining to real, concrete objects. Concrete operations allow the child to coordinate several characteristics concrete operational stage Piaget’s third cognitive rather than focus on a single property of an object. At the concrete operational level, developmental stage, occurring between about 7 and 11 children can do mentally what they previously could do only physically, and they years of age. At this stage, the child thinks operationally, can reverse concrete operations. and logical reasoning replaces intuitive thought but only An important concrete operation is classifying or dividing things into different in concrete situations; classification skills are present, but sets or subsets and considering their interrelationships. Reasoning about a family tree abstract problems present difficulties. of four generations reveals a child’s concrete operational skills (Furth & Wachs, 1975). www.mhhe.com/santedu6e Cognitive Development 45 CONNECTING WITH STUDENTS: Best Practices Strategies for Working with Preoperational Thinkers As you have just read, young children think on a different plane For example, if they see a horse at the end of a field, they from older children. Following are some effective strategies for should place the horse in the same location in the drawing. advancing young children’s thinking. 4. Construct an inclined plane or a hill. Let children roll mar- 1. Ask children to make comparisons. These might involve bles of various sizes down the plane. Ask them to com- such concepts as bigger, taller, wider, heavier, and longer. pare how quickly the different-size marbles reach the 2. Give children experience in ordering operations. For exam- bottom. This should help them understand the concept ple, have children line up in rows from tall to short and of speed. vice versa. Bring in various examples of animal and plant 5. Ask children to justify their answers when they draw life cycles, such as several photographs of butterfly devel- ­conclusions. For example, when they say that pouring a opment or the sprouting of beans or kernels of corn. liquid from a short, wide container into a tall, thin con- 3. Have children draw scenes with perspective. Encourage tainer makes the liquid change in volume, ask, “Why do them to make the objects in their drawings appear to be at you think so?” or “How could you prove this to one of the same location as in the scene they are viewing. your friends?” The family tree shown in Figure 13 suggests that the grandfather (A) has three children seriation A concrete operation that involves ordering (B, C, and D), each of whom has two children (E through J), and one of these children stimuli along some quantitative dimension. (J) has three children (K, L, and M). Concrete operational thinkers understand the transitivity The ability to reason and logically combine classification. For example, they can reason that person J can at the same time be relationships. father, brother, and grandson. A preoperational thinker cannot. Some Piagetian tasks require children to reason about relations between classes. formal operational stage Piaget’s fourth cognitive One such task is seriation, the concrete operation that involves ordering stimuli developmental stage, which emerges between about 11 and 15 years of age; thought becomes more abstract, along some quantitative dimension (such as length). To see if students can serialize, idealistic, and logical. a teacher might place eight sticks of different lengths in a haphazard way on a table. The teacher then asks the student to order the sticks by length. Many young children end up with two or three small groups of “big” sticks or “little” sticks rather than a correct ordering of all eight sticks. Another mistaken strategy they use is to evenly line up the tops of the sticks but ignore the bottoms. The concrete operational thinker I A simultaneously understands that each stick must be longer than the one that precedes it and shorter than the one that follows it. Transitivity involves the ability to reason about and logically combine relation- II B C D ships. If a relation holds between a first object and a second object, and also holds between the second object and a third object, then it also holds between the first and third objects. For example, consider three sticks (A, B, and C) of differing lengths. A III E F G H I J is the longest, B is intermediate in length, and C is the shortest. Does the child under- stand that if A is longer than B, and B is longer than C, then A is longer than C? In Piaget’s theory, concrete operational thinkers do; preoperational thinkers do not. IV K L M The Formal Operational Stage The formal operational stage, which emerges at about 11 to 15 years of age, is Piaget’s fourth and final cognitive stage. At this stage, individuals move beyond reasoning only about concrete experiences and think in FIGURE 13 CLASSIFICATION more abstract, idealistic, and logical ways. A family tree of four generations (I to IV ): The The abstract quality of formal operational thinking is evident in verbal problem preoperational child has trouble classifying the solving. The concrete operational thinker needs to see the concrete elements A, B, members of the four generations; the concrete and C to make the logical inference that if A = B and B = C, then A = C. In contrast, operational child can classify the members vertically, the formal operational thinker can solve this problem when it is verbally presented. horizontally, and obliquely (up and down and acro