Zoo 418 Lecture Notes on Beekeeping PDF

**ZOO 418-PRINCIPLES OF ZOOKEEPING AND ANIMAL BREEDING** **LECTURE NOTE** **BY** **MUZAMMIL WADA SALISU** **INTRODUCTION TO APICULTURE: IMPORTANCE AND HISTORY** Insects are dominant animals on this earth. Usually insects are considered harmful to man but hardly 1 per cent of insect species fall...

**ZOO 418-PRINCIPLES OF ZOOKEEPING AND ANIMAL BREEDING** **LECTURE NOTE** **BY** **MUZAMMIL WADA SALISU** **INTRODUCTION TO APICULTURE: IMPORTANCE AND HISTORY** Insects are dominant animals on this earth. Usually insects are considered harmful to man but hardly 1 per cent of insect species fall in the pest category. Benefits of insects in maintaining economy outweigh the injury inflicted. Honey bees are one of the few insects directly beneficial to man. In the animal kingdom honey bees belong to: Phylum-Arthropoda, Class- Insecta, Order-Hymenoptera, Superfamily-Apoidea and Family-Apidae. Honey is highly valued food produced by honey bees and it is also used as medicine. In addition to honey, other products like bees wax, pollen, royal jelly and bee venom are also produced by honey bees. More than the producers of these hive products; bees play an important role in pollination of plants while collecting their food from flowers in the form of nectar and pollen. Pollination is involved in a chain of complex events significant to our economy. Pollination by insects including honey bees is important for ecological balance. Visitation by honey bees between distant varieties or cultivars promotes hybridization and help sparse populations to survive. Their mutual dependency has resulted into great degree of co-evolution. Apiculture is also known as bee-keeping. Why this name? '*Apis*' means bee. The scientific names of different species of honeybees begin with the generic name Apis. Apiculture or bee-keeping is the art of caring for, and manipulating colonies of honeybee in large quantity, over and above their own requirement. **Brief History** The first evidence of this association came to light from the rock paintings made by primitive human. Thousands of years ago, Egyptian were well acquainted with bee keeping before the Christian Era. In Rigveda, there are many references to bee and honey. Bee-keeping became a commercial proposition during the 19th century as a result of scientific research. Apiculture is a flourishing industry in many advanced countries like USA, Canada, Germany and Australia. Species of honey bee There are four common species of honey bee under a single genus Apis (apis = bee): 1\. ***Apis dorsata*** (The rock- bee) This is the largest honeybee. Builds single large open comb on high branches of trees and rocks. Produces large quantity of honey, but this bee is difficult to domesticate. This bee is ferocious, stings severely causing fever and sometimes even death. 2\. ***Apis indica*** (The Indian bee) Medium - sized Hive consists of several parallel combs in dark places such as cavities of tree trunks, mud walls, earthen posts, etc. This bee is not so ferocious and can be domesticated 3\. ***Apis florea*** (The little bee) small - sized Builds single small combs in bushes, hedges, etc. Honey yield is poor. 4\. ***Apis mellifera*** (The European bee) somewhat like the Indian bee (*Apis indica*). This has been introducted in many parts of the world including India. It is easily domesticated. It is important to know difference between a species and subspecies. Species are reproductively isolated from each other and these cannot interbreed whereas subspecies are geographically isolated and can interbreed among the two domestic bee species, each has many subspecies in different parts of the world e.g. *Apis cerana* has three subspecies in India: *A. ceranacerana* in Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir (North India) A. ceranaindica in Kerala, Tamilnadu and Karnataka. (South India) A. *ceranahimalaya* in Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Assam and Meghalaya. (Eastern parts of India) In addition to above three subspecies, *A. cerana japonica* has been identified from Japan. A. mellifera has many subspecies which can be placed under three groups: 1\. Eastern subspecies 2\. European subspecies 3\. African subspecies Eastern subspecies: i\. *Apis mellifera remipes* (in Iran) ii\. A. melliferasyriaca (in Syria, Israel and Lebanon). These subspecies are not suitable for modern beekeeping European subspecies: i\. *A. mellifera mellifera* (Dark Dutch or German bee) ii\. *A. mellifera carnica* (Carniolan bee; in Southern Austria) iii\. A. mellifera ligustica (Italian bee; Italy) iv\. *A. mellifera caucasica* (Caucasican bee; USSR) African subspecies: Some of the important subspecies are: i\. *A. mellifera intermissa* (Tellian bee; Morocco and Lybia) ii\. *A. mellifera lamarckii* (Egyptian bee; restricted to the Nile Valley) iii\. *A. melliferacapensis* (Cape bee; the only bee which can rear queen from eggs laid by workers) iv\. *A. melliferaadansonii* (African bee; also known as killer bee) **GENERAL MORPHOLOGY** In honey bees, body parts are modified as per their food habits and social life. Like any insect, body of honey bee can be distinguished in to three parts a\. Head b\. Thorax c\. Abdomen **Head** Head bears a pair of geniculate antennae, two compound eyes on lateral side of head. Bees can distinguish different colours but are red blind and can perceive ultraviolet rays Head bears 3 ocelli (simple eyes) on top portion which perceive degree of light Two mandibles are attached to ventro-lateral part of head capsule. Mandibles differ in shape in three castes. Workers use mandibles for grasping and scrapping pollen from anthers, feeding of pollen and in manipulation of wax scales during comb building Mouth parts of worker bees are modified for sucking and lapping. Tongue or proboscis (formed by medium labium and two lateral maxillae) is used for ingesting liquids. Labium has long median glossa and spoon shaped lobe (flabellum) at the end inside the head there are long coiled strings of small lobes known as hypopharyngeal glands which secrete glandular food known as royal jelly that is fed to queen and young larvae. **Thorax** It consists of three segments: prothorax ,mesothorax and metathorax, each bears a pair of legs. Meso and metathorax, each bears a pair of wings. Legs and wings are locomotory organs. In addition to locomotion legs in honey bees are also modified to perform following functions: Prothoracic legs serve as antenna cleaner. Basal part of basitarsus has a notch and a small lobe projects from distal end of tibia (tibial spur). It is found in all the three castes. On mesothoracic legs, bushy tarsi serve as brushes for cleaning of thorax. Long spine at end of middle tibia is used for loosening pellets of pollen from pollen basket of hind leg and also for cleaning wings and spiracles. Wax scales are also removed from wax pockets of abdomen by these legs. Hind or metathoracic legs differ from other legs in being larger in size and with broad flattened form of tibia and basitarsus. In worker bees, smooth somewhat concave outer surface of hind tibia is fringed with long curved hairs and forms pollen basket or corbicula. Two pairs of wings arise from sides of meso and metathorax. Fore wings are stronger than hind wings. Series of upturned hooks (hamuli) are present on front margin of each hind wing. Decurved fold on rear margin of fore wing works as coupling apparatus for holding hamuli and this result in unity of action of the wings in flight. **Abdomen** First abdominal segment is united with the metathorax and forms anatomically a part of thorax known as propodeum  Bee larva has 10 abdominal segments but in adult workers abdomen appears 6 segmented; segments 8-10 are reduced in size and first segment (propodeum) is transferred to thorax during pupal stage Abdomen bears sting, wax glands (on sternites 4 to 7) and scent glands (on last two terga) and genitalia in addition to other viscera. In workers egg laying apparatus (ovipositor) is modified into sting queen Uses ovipositor for egg laying and for stinging rival queen. **COLONY ORGANIZATION AND DIVISION OF LABOUR** Honey bees are social insects and live in colonies. A normal colony, during active season is composed of 3 kinds of individuals: one queen, thousands of workers (10000 to 30000 or even more) and few hundreds of drones, which vary in size. In addition, each colony has different developmental stages viz eggs, larvae and pupae which are collectively known as brood. **Queen:** Only one queen is found in a colony except under supersedure or swarming instinct She is the mother of the whole colony producing workers and drones and is the only perfectly developed female member of the colony. Her function is to lay eggs. She does not have motherly instinct or ability to feed the brood. She is fed lavishly by a large number of nurse bees with highly nutritious food known as royal jelly. A good queen can lay 1500-2000 eggs per day. A laying queen is the longest bee in the colony. It has larger thorax than worker and her abdomen gets greatly distended during egg laying. The queen lays both fertilized and unfertilized eggs. Fertilized eggs produce workers (also queens) and unfertilized eggs produce drones. A good mated queen may work satisfactorily for 2 or more years, although queens can live eight years or longer. However, in commercial beekeeping, queen is replaced every year to keep high brood rearing in a colony. Queen releases queen substance (pheromone) which helps in the colony organization. It acts as worker attractant and inhibits ovary development in worker bees as well as raising new queen. Absence of queen pheromone is detected after about 30 minutes of queen loss and colony may start raising new queen. The pheromones in queen substance stimulate brood rearing, comb building, hoarding and foraging in a colony and thus play important role in normal working of a colony. **Worker:** Workers are imperfect females. They are unable to mate though may start egg laying if a colony remains queen less for long period.The workers perform all the useful work in the colony. Duties of workers include: Cleaning of the hive, feeding of larvae, raising queen cells when required, ventilate hive, guard the hive entrances, secrete bees wax, construct the combs, collect the nectar and convert it into honey (collection of pollen, water and propolis, produce a predigested food of royal jelly for feeding queens and young larvae and scouting for a new nest site during swarming. The workers also feed the drones but when not needed, they are thrown out of hive. Worker bees release alarm pheromone on stinging from lining of sting chamber and it assists in defense of the colony by alerting other colony members of the threat. A worker has an average life of only 40-50 days during honey flow season (active period) and her life may extend up to 6 months during off season Laying workers: Under queenless conditions for a long duration, ovaries of some of the workers start developing and they can lay even eggs but since these are unfertilized, give rise to only drones. The eggs laid by the laying workers have haphazard pattern and many eggs are laid in each cell of the comb. The colonies with laying workers ultimately perish. *A. melliferacapensis* is the exception where even from the eggs of laying workers queen and workers are raised by the bees. **Drone:** Drones neither perform any duty inside the hive nor do they collect food from flowers. Each drone is fed by 3 to 4 worker bees. A colony rears and tolerates the drones only during breeding season when new queens are being produced and are later driven out of the colony to die of starvation. The sole function of a drone is to mate once which costs him his life. Maximum life of drone honey bee in summer is 59 days. **SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR OF HONEY BEES** Among different insect orders, only 8 have been recognized by insect taxonomists which have some communal life. Out of these 8 orders only two orders viz. Isoptera and Hymenoptera have well developed social organization. Even in Hymenoptera, only two families namely Halictidae and Apidae of superfamily Apoidea contain fully social species. Most of other bees live solitary life. **Social behaviour** Honey bees are among the fully social insects having overlap of many generations in the same nest. The colony is a well-organized social group having division of labour in terms of laying of eggs, nursing, comb building, guarding, food collection and its storage. They have well developed communication system through different types of dances as well as trophallaxis. **Biological communication** can be defined as an action on the part of one organism that alters the probability pattern of behavior in another organism in an adaptive fashion. Adaptive means that the signaling or the response or both which have been genetically programmed to some extent by natural selection. **Trophallaxis** is food transmission (exchange of food) which is common between workers and also from workers to queen and drones. It is a sort of communication regarding availability of food and water and also a medium for transfer of pheromone. In honey bees, recruit communication is very important mode of communication which is defined as a communication that brings nest mates to some point in space where work is required. Dances of honey bees are important recruit communication. **DANCES OF HONEY BEES** It was Father Spitzner in 1788 who for the first time described bee dances as method of communication among inmates of the hive about volume of honey flow and place of source of nectar. These observations remained unnoticed till Frisch (1920) published his observations. Karl von Frisch got noble prize in 1973 (under physiology & medicine, who shared it with two other animal behaviourists) on the basis of his work published in 1946. **Types of dances**: In honey bees there is a well-developed recruitment system to increase foraging efficiency. Some of the foraging force (5-35%) acts as scout bees/searcher bees. These bees may travel many kilometers. Average foraging radius of a colony is only few hundred meters in agricultural areas and about 2km in forested areas. Scouts communicate distance, direction and quality of flowers through different types of dances which in turn results in recruitment of other workers to forage on the best available sources. The scout bees perform two types of dances i\) Round dance ii\) Wag-tail dance **Round dance** This type of dance is performed if food source is nearby (within100 metres in case of *A. mellifera* and 10 metres in *A. cerana*). The performing bee takes quick short steps and runs around in narrow circles on the comb; once to right and then left and then repeating for several seconds. The dance excites the bees and they touch the performer with their antennae and then leave the hive in search of source of food. In this dance there is no indication of direction of food and the foragers search within 100 metres in all direction using floral odour clinging to hairy body of scout bee as cue as well as from the sips of nectar which they receive from the dancing bee. **Wag-tail dance** This dance is performed when the distance of food source is more than 100 metres from the hive. In this dance the bee starts dancing on the comb making a half circle to one side and then takes a sharp turn and runs in a straight line to starting point. Thereafter takes another half circle on the opposite direction to complete one full circle. Again the bee runs in a straight line to the starting point. In the straight run the dancing bee makes wiggling motion with her body that is why this dance is known as wag-tail dance. Location of food is indicated by direction of straight run in relation to line of gravity. If the food is in line with the sun, bee wag-tails upwards and if away from the sun, it performs downwards. If the food source is to the left of the sun the bees dance at an angle counterclockwise to the line of gravity whereas, if it is to the right of the sun the bees dance to the right of the line of gravity. **BEE KEEPING EQUIPMENT** **1. Bee hive** L.L. Langstroth discovered the principle of bee space in 1851 in the U.S.A. This space permits free passage for worker bees and is too small to build a comb by bees or too large for depositing bee glue i.e. propolis. We can say that bee space is optimum distance between two surfaces in a bee hive essential for normal movement and functioning of bees. This principle was a big discovery for modern beekeeping. The modern hive has been designed on the bases of principle of bee space in which frames can be easily moved. The bee space measures 9.52 mm for A. mellifera and this was modified for A. cerana to be between 7 and 9 mm. Different parts of a movable frame bee hive are shown in Fig.below. Parts of a Beehive and Langstroth Beehive Measurements - Complete Beehives Stand: To support bottom board. Bottom board: It is floor of the hive having an entrance for bees. On this board brood chamber rests. Brood chamber: Chamber used for rearing of brood. Frames are placed in this chamber on which bees raise combs. The dimensions and number of frames vary with the type of hive. A wooden dummy board is used to limit the size of brood chamber and is placed at the end of brood frames. Frame: Each frame consists of a top bar, two side and a bottom bar. Inner aspect of the top bar has a groove for fixing comb foundation sheet. Side bar has 4 holes for wiring the frame. The frame holds a comb. **2. Beekeeping suit**: This is a protective gear worn by beekeepers to protect themselves from bee stings while working with bees. **3. Smoker:** A smoker is used to calm the bees during inspection or harvesting. The smoke makes them less aggressive and easier to handle. **4. Uncapping knife:** This is a special knife used to remove the wax caps from the honeycomb to allow the honey to flow out. **5. Honey extractor**: A honey extractor is a machine that spins honey out of the comb. It uses centrifugal force to extract honey without destroying the comb. **Strainer or sieve**: A strainer or sieve is used to remove any impurities or debris from the honey after extraction. **Storage tank**: A storage tank is used to store the extracted honey temporarily before packaging. **Packaging equipment**: This includes bottles, jars, and labels for the honey. Weighing scale: A weighing scale is used to measure and weigh the honey before packaging. **Bee Farming/Keeping in Nigeria** Bee farming, also known as apiculture, is the practice of raising and keeping bees for the production of honey, beeswax, pollen, royal jelly, and other bee-related products. It involves maintaining beehives and colonies, ensuring their health and productivity, and harvesting the products they produce. Bee farming is a vital part of agriculture and food production, as it plays a critical role in pollinating crops and plants. In Nigeria and Africa, bee farming has been practiced for centuries, and it remains an essential aspect of traditional agriculture. With the growing demand for natural and organic products, bee farming has become an attractive business opportunity in the region, with significant potential for growth and profitability. - **Benefits of Bee Farming In Nigeria** **Honey production**: Beekeeping is mainly done for the production of honey, which is a nutritious food source. **Income generation**: Bee farming provides an additional source of income for farmers, and can be a profitable business venture. **Employment opportunities**: Bee farming creates employment opportunities, particularly for youth and women. **Pollination**: Bees are important pollinators, and bee farming helps to increase crop yield. **Environmental conservation**: Bee farming promotes environmental conservation, as bees play a crucial role in pollinating plants and maintaining the ecosystem. **Health benefits**: Honey has several health benefits, including boosting the immune system and promoting wound healing. **Diversification**: Bee farming provides farmers with an opportunity to diversify their agricultural activities, reducing their dependence on a single crop. **Low capital investment**: Bee farming requires relatively low capital investment, making it accessible to small-scale farmers. **Sustainable agriculture**: Bee farming is a sustainable form of agriculture that can be practiced without damaging the environment. **Improved soil fertility**: Bee farming can improve soil fertility by increasing pollination and nutrient cycling. **Genetic diversity**: Bee farming promotes genetic diversity, as beekeepers often maintain different species of bees. **Honey as a natural sweetener**: Honey can be used as a natural sweetener in place of sugar, which has several health benefits. **Medicinal properties of honey**: Honey has been used in traditional medicine for its antibacterial and anti-inflammatory properties. **Value addition**: Bee farming can create value-added products such as beeswax candles, propolis, and royal jelly. **Export potential**: Bee farming products have export potential, particularly honey, which is in high demand in international markets. **Health Benefits of Honey** Honey is a natural sweet substance produced by bees from flower nectar. It is a great source of nutrients and has numerous health benefits for the body. Here are 15 health benefits of honey: **Boosts immunity**: Honey has antibacterial and anti-inflammatory properties that help to strengthen the immune system and fight off infections. **Promotes wound healing**: Honey has natural antiseptic properties that help to prevent infections and promote healing of wounds. **Aids digestion**: Honey contains enzymes that aid in the digestion of food and promote the growth of beneficial gut bacteria. **Relieves cough and sore throat**: Honey has a soothing effect on the throat and can help to relieve cough and sore throat symptoms. **Reduces allergy symptoms**: Honey can help to reduce allergy symptoms by desensitizing the body to pollen and other allergens. **Regulates blood sugar**: Honey has a lower glycemic index than sugar and can help to regulate blood sugar levels. **Promotes heart health**: Honey contains antioxidants that can help to lower the risk of heart disease by reducing inflammation and improving cholesterol levels. **Boosts energy**: Honey is a natural source of carbohydrates and can provide a quick energy boost. **Improves sleep**: Honey can help to promote sleep by increasing the release of serotonin, a hormone that regulates sleep. **Relieves stress**: Honey has a calming effect on the body and can help to relieve stress and anxiety. **Improves skin health**: Honey has antibacterial and anti-inflammatory properties that can help to improve skin health and reduce acne. **Enhances athletic performance**: Honey has been shown to improve athletic performance by providing a quick source of energy and reducing fatigue. **Supports weight loss**: Honey can help to support weight loss by reducing cravings for sweets and promoting feelings of fullness. **Promotes bone health**: Honey contains nutrients that are important for bone health, including calcium, magnesium, and potassium. **Fights cancer**: Honey has been shown to have anti-cancer properties and may help to reduce the risk of certain types of cancer. - **How To Start Bee Farming In Nigeria: Step-By-Step Guide** Bee farming is a profitable business in Nigeria and Africa, and it is relatively easy to start. Here is a step-by-step guide on how to start bee farming: **Research and learn about beekeeping**: Before starting your bee farming business, you need to educate yourself about beekeeping. You can attend beekeeping courses, read books and articles on beekeeping or consult with an experienced beekeeper. **Choose a suitable location**: A suitable location for bee farming should have enough forage, access to water, and a favorable climate. It is also important to consider the security of the area and the availability of transport. **Acquire the necessary equipment**: You will need to purchase beekeeping equipment such as hives, bee suits, smokers, and tools. **Obtain bees**: You can obtain bees through purchasing packaged bees or capturing a swarm. Alternatively, you can start with a nucleus colony or divide an existing colony. **Prepare the hive**: The hive should be prepared by cleaning, painting, and setting it up in a secure location. **Feed and manage the bees**: You should feed the bees sugar syrup or honey, and monitor the hive for any signs of diseases or pests. **Harvest the honey**: Once the bees have produced enough honey, you can harvest the honey by removing the frames from the hive and extracting the honey. **Market and sell the honey**: You can market and sell the honey by packaging it in jars and selling it directly to consumers, or selling it to retailers, hotels, or restaurants. Note: Starting a bee farming business requires dedication, knowledge, and investment. However, with proper planning and management, it can be a profitable venture. - **How To Produce, Manufacture and Package Honey In Nigeria** Here is a step-by-step guide on how to produce, manufacture, and package honey in Nigeria and Africa: **Harvesting**: The first step in producing honey is harvesting it from the hives. This is usually done when the honey is mature, and the bees have capped the cells. **Extraction**: Once the honey is harvested, it needs to be extracted from the comb. This can be done using an extractor or by crushing and straining the comb. **Filtering**: After extraction, the honey needs to be filtered to remove any impurities such as bits of wax, pollen, or bee parts. **Pasteurization**: Pasteurization is the process of heating the honey to kill any yeast or bacteria that may be present. This can be done by heating the honey to a temperature of 63°C for 30 minutes. **Bottling**: Once the honey is filtered and pasteurized, it can be bottled for sale. Honey is usually sold in glass jars, plastic bottles, or squeeze tubes. **Labeling**: All honey products sold in Nigeria and Africa must be labeled in compliance with local regulations. The label should include the name and address of the producer, the net weight of the honey, and any other relevant information. **Packaging**: Honey can be packaged in a variety of ways, including bulk containers, retail-sized jars, and gift packs. - **Target Market for Honey in Nigeria** **Health-conscious individuals**: One of the main target markets for honey in Nigeria and Africa are individuals who are health-conscious and seek natural alternatives to processed sugars. Honey is a natural sweetener that offers several health benefits, including being a rich source of antioxidants, anti-inflammatory properties, and promoting digestive health. **Beauty and skincare industry**: Honey is a common ingredient in the beauty and skincare industry due to its moisturizing and antibacterial properties. It is used in products such as face masks, moisturizers, and hair conditioners. The demand for natural skincare products is growing in Nigeria and Africa, making this an ideal market for honey producers. **Food industry**: The food industry is another significant target market for honey in Nigeria and Africa. Honey can be used as a natural sweetener in food products such as baked goods, sauces, and dressings. The demand for natural and organic food products is on the rise, and honey can offer a healthier alternative to processed sugars. **Medical and pharmaceutical industries**: Honey has been used for medicinal purposes for centuries and is known to have antibacterial properties that can aid in wound healing. In Nigeria and Africa, honey is used as a traditional medicine for a variety of ailments, including coughs and sore throats. As a result, the medical and pharmaceutical industries represent a potential target market for honey producers. - **How to Sell or Market Honey & Other Bee Products.** Sell to local stores: Approach local stores and offer to supply them with your honey and other bee farming products. **Sell at farmers' markets**: Farmers' markets are a great way to sell honey and other bee farming products directly to consumers. **Sell online**: Create an online store or use e-commerce platforms such as Jumia or Konga to sell your products online. **Advertise on social media**: Utilize social media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, Whatsapp and Instagram to advertise and market your bee farming products. **Collaborate with other businesses**: Collaborate with restaurants, bakeries, and other food-related businesses to supply them with honey and other bee farming products. **Attend trade shows**: Attend trade shows and exhibitions to showcase your products and network with potential customers. **Offer bulk sales**: Offer bulk sales to companies and individuals who may need honey and other bee farming products in large quantities. **Participate in food festivals**: Participate in food festivals and fairs to promote your bee farming products and reach a wider audience. **Sell to honey packers**: Sell your honey to honey packers who package and distribute honey to retailers and wholesalers. **Supply to hotels and restaurants**: Approach hotels and restaurants and offer to supply them with your honey and other bee farming products. - **Challenges of Bee keeping In Nigeria** **Lack of access to quality beekeeping equipment and tools**: Beekeeping requires specialized equipment and tools that are not always easily accessible, especially in rural areas. **Poor knowledge and awareness of modern beekeeping techniques**: Many beekeepers in Nigeria and Africa still rely on traditional, inefficient methods that limit productivity and profitability. **Lack of skilled beekeeping professionals**: The shortage of skilled beekeeping professionals and trainers can be a major challenge for new beekeepers and those looking to expand their operations. **Pests and diseases**: Bees can be affected by various pests and diseases, including mites, wax moths, and fungal infections, which can cause significant damage to hives and bee populations. **Climate change**: Changes in weather patterns and environmental factors can affect the availability of nectar and pollen, which are essential for bee survival and honey production. **Lack of access to finance**: Many small-scale beekeepers struggle to access the capital they need to invest in their operations, purchase equipment and expand their businesses. **Limited market access**: Beekeepers in Nigeria and Africa often struggle to find buyers for their honey and other bee products, which can limit their income and growth potential. **Competition from imported honey**: The influx of imported honey products from other countries can pose a challenge for local beekeepers and make it difficult for them to compete in the market. **Limited access to technology**: The use of technology can help improve beekeeping practices, but many beekeepers in Nigeria and Africa lack access to modern tools and equipment. **Inadequate research and development**: There is a lack of research and development in the beekeeping industry in Nigeria and Africa, which limits the potential for innovation and growth. **Environmental degradation**: Deforestation, pollution, and other forms of environmental degradation can reduce the availability of forage for bees, which can negatively impact bee populations and honey production. **Lack of government support**: Government policies and support for beekeeping are often lacking in Nigeria and Africa, which can limit the growth and potential of the industry. **Inadequate infrastructure**: Poor roads, limited access to electricity and water, and other infrastructure challenges can make it difficult for beekeepers to transport their products and access markets. **Limited access to training and education**: Many beekeepers lack access to formal training and education programs, which can limit their ability to improve their practices and expand their businesses. **High cost of inputs**: The cost of inputs, such as sugar and pollen supplements, can be high, which can limit profitability for beekeepers. **SERICULTURE** - **What is Sericulture?** Sericulture is the process of cultivating silkworms and extracting silk from them. The caterpillars of the domestic silkmoth (also called '*Bombyx Mori'*) are the most commonly used silkworm species in sericulture. - **What is Silk Made up of?** Silk is a fibre made up two different proteins -- sericin and fibroin. Approximately 80% of silk fibre is made up of fibroin, which is concentrated at the core. This core is surrounded by a layer of sericin (which makes up the remaining 20% of silk). The presence of pigments (such as xanthophyll) in the sericin layer of the fibre imparts colour to the silk - **Brief History** Sericulture or silk production from the moth, Bombyx mori has a long and colourful history unknown to most people. This insect is the only living species of family Bombycidae and has been domesticated for so long that it is possible that there are no survivors in the wild any longer. According to the Chinese records, the discovery of silk production from B. mori occurred about 2700 BC. It is believed that empress Si-lung-Chi was asked by emperor Huang-ti to find the cause of damaged mulberry leaves on trees in their garden. The empress found white worms eating the leaves. She noticed that they were also shiny cocoons around themselves. A cocoon dropped in her cup of tea and silky threads separated from the cocoon. Silk industry began in China where the source of silk was kept a secret for more than 2000 years. After some time, China lost their monopoly in silk production, sericulture reached Japan through Korea and then to other countries. Sericulture has been growing in India as an agro-based industry playing a vital role in the improvement of rural economy. - **Source of silk --** The silkworm is the larva or the caterpillar of the moth *Bombyx mori* (popularly called the silk moth) the total life history of the moth (from egg to adult take 50 days. The different stages are as follows: (i) Egg 10 days (ii) Larva (4 Stages) 30 days (iii) Pupa (Cocoon) 10 days **(i) Adult** The adult silk moth is a creamy white moth that has a flat body and a wing expanse of about 5 cms. It takes no food and seldom attempts to fly. It lives for only 2 to 3 days. After mating, the female moth lays 300-500 eggs on leaves of the mulberry tree. **(ii) Eggs** The eggs are round and yellowish-white, and they become grey as hatching time approaches. **(iii) Larvae** The newly hatched larva is about 3 mm long and somewhat black in colour. The larvae grow in size and shed their skin (moult) four times. Each growing stage of the caterpillar consumes lot of mulberry leaves. The last stage full grown larva is about 7 cm long. It has a hump behind the head and a spine-like horn at the tail end. When full grown, the mature larva stops feeding, climbs on a twig and spins a cocoon. **(iv) Pupa** The full grown larva pupates inside the cocoon -- In about 10 days time it transforms into a winged adult. The adult moth makes an opening in the cocoon and escapes through it. **The cocoon** The cocoon is formed from a secretion from two large silk glands (actually the salivary glands), which extend along the inside of the body and open through a common duct on the lower lip of the mouthparts. The larva moves the head from side to side very rapidly (about 65 times per minute) throwing out the secretion of the silk glands in the form of a thread. The secretion is a clear viscous fluid, which on exposure to the air gets hardened into the fine silk fibre. The filament forming a cocoon is continuous and ranges in length from 700-1100 metres. The cocoons from which moths have emerged are called pierced cocoons. These are of low value because continuous thread cannot be obtained. Pieces are removed by instruments and spun into a thread. - **What is the Process Followed in Sericulture?** For the production of mulberry silk, the sericulture process follows three primary steps. **Moriculture** -- the cultivation of mulberry leaves. **Silkworm rearing** -- promoting the growth of the silkworm. **Silk reeling** -- the extraction of silk filaments from the silkworm cocoons. Finally, the silk filaments are woven together to form a thread. These threads are often plied together to form a yarn. - **Moriculture** Moriculture refers to the cultivation of mulberry plants, whose leaves are used as silkworm feed. These plants can be grown via three different methods: - Cultivation from seeds - Root-grafting - Stem grafting The stem grafting method is the most commonly used method for mulberry plantation. Here, cuttings that are approximately 22 centimetres in length, containing at least 3 buds, are extracted from the stem of a mature mulberry plant. These cuttings may be directly planted or first kept in nurseries and then transplanted. - **Rearing of silkworms** Selected healthy silk moths are allowed to mate for 4 hours. Female moth is then kept in a dark plastic bed. She lays about 400 eggs in 24 hours, the female is taken out and is crushed and examined for any disease, only the certified disease- free eggs are reared for industrial purpose. The eggs are hatched in an incubator. The hatched larvae are kept in trays inside a rearing house at a temperature of about 20°C-25°C. These are first fed on chopped mulberry leaves. After 4-5 days fresh leaves are provided. As the larvae grow, they are transferred to fresh leaves on clean trays, when fully grown they spin cocoons. - **Silk reeling** The cocoons are cooked in hot water and the silk fibre is unwound from the cocoons. This process is called reeling. The silk consists of two proteins the inner core is fibroin and an outer cover of sericin. There are four following steps for the completion of the process of reeling: For reeling silk the cocoons are gathered about 8 days after spinning had begun. -- The cocoons are first treated by steam or dry heat to kill the insect inside. This is necessary to prevent the destruction of the continuous fibre by the emergence of the moth. -- Next, the cocoons are soaked in hot water (95° -97°C) for 10-15 minutes to soften the gum that binds the silk threads together. This process is called cooking. -- The "cooked" cocoons are kept in hot water and the loose ends of the thread are caught by hand. -- Threads from several cocoons are wound together on wheels ("charakhas") to form the reels of raw silk. Only about one-half of the silk of each cocoon is reelable, the remainder is used as a silk waste and formed into spun silk. Raw silk thus obtained is processed through several treatments to give it the final shape. - **Main properties of silk** 1\. It is lustrous, soft and strong. 2\. It is made of two proteins: the inner core is fibroin and an outer cover is sericin 3\. It is hard wearing. 4\. It can be dyed into several colours Silk moth *Bombyx mori* is at present fully domesticated. It no longer exists in a wild state and it cannot survive without the human care. - **What are the Challenges Faced in Sericulture?** Silk farmers practicing sericulture are met with several challenges that could potentially destroy their harvest. They are also prone to many health hazards. Silkworms are vulnerable to several diseases such as pebrine and flacherie. Also, several pests threaten the healthy growth of silkworm larvae. Some important challenges faced in sericulture are listed below. - The pebrine disease can infect the eggs, resulting in their death before the hatching of the larvae. Any larvae affected by this disease develop dark spots and become lethargic. - Viral infections in the larvae may result in the shrinkage of their bodies. They may also start giving off an unpleasant odour. - Other viral infections such as cytoplasmic polyhedrosis can cause the larvae to lose their appetites. - The muscardine infection, caused by fungi, can cause the larvae to become extremely feeble and eventually die. - The larvae of dermestid the beetlesnotepadcan bore into the silkworm cocoons and eat the pupae. Silk cannot be reeled from these damaged cocoons. - Some mites produce a toxic substance that kills silkworms.