ENVS 2210 Final Material PDF

lOMoARcPSD|46526011 ENVS 2210 Final Material Honey Bee Biology (University of Guelph) Scan to open on Studocu Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university Downloaded by Wallace Spataro ([email protected]) ...

lOMoARcPSD|46526011 ENVS 2210 Final Material Honey Bee Biology (University of Guelph) Scan to open on Studocu Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university Downloaded by Wallace Spataro ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46526011 Unit 1: Introduction to Honey Bees and Beekeeping Bees and Humans  Excellent biological study subjects and the most intensely studied insect species o Social animals to study  Studied to teach us about ourselves/ humankind  Characteristics of human interest: aggressive behaviour, hormone regulation, alcoholism, and immunity  Architecture masters: combs are built w perfect hexagonal cells to withstand heavy loads and rear bees  Dance language to tell sister workers where food sources are located  Pheromone communication for repro, cohesion, and foraging aims  Evolution studies about social behaviour, repro (queen> colony, sperm storage in queen’s spermatheca)  Co-evolution of honey bees and flowers o Convenient: easy to keep colonies w study subjects available as required o Interesting insects that intrigue philosophers, writers, and artists  Beneficial and productive insects o Honey provides food and medicine  Rich in carbs, vitamins, and antibacterial components o Crop pollination is highly valuable: growers rely on them to pollinate $2 billion worth Canadian crops and over $150 billion worldwide  Most important managed pollinator of crop plants o Other hive products include beeswax, pollen, propolis, and bee venom o Source of entertainment for hobby beekeepers, movies, and documentaries  Beekeeping: art of providing honey bees a dwelling/ hive and managing them according to season o Important to learn practices over several seasons (experience) and from literature Textbook page 9-11  Beekeeping/ apiculture/ bee culture: care and maintenance of bee colonies for fun and profit o Can pay for investment thru honey sales, selling hives, and colony rental fees o Vast majority are backyard beekeepers who receive satisfaction learning  Basically, beekeeping is providing honey bees w convenient domicile= hive, allowing them to rear brood and store honey in abundance o Swarming: reproduction of the social colony is discouraged o Natural instinct to gather and store food is encouraged  Makes colony management more effective, hence term applied bee biology  Beekeepers manage colonies by anticipating colony growth and timing manipulation in accordance w natural seasonal cycle  Not domesticated o Used genetic selection to produce stocks that are easier to manage, produce more honey and have disease and parasite tolerance  Successful beekeeping is characterized as anticipation, not reaction  Colony population management: bees are social organisms whose colony increases population in predictable, seasonal way o With or without beekeeper intervention o Instinctively growing stronger to take advantage of environment resources o Skilled beekeepers support this growth so bee population peaks at start of nectar flow  Each hive is unique  Hives often respond similarly to environmental cues w predictable seasonal variations  Essence of beekeeping: figure demonstrating how bee population grows rapidly after a seasonal low point o Winter in temperate climate areas or wet period in tropics o As the population expands, they have strong impulse to swarm (natural population division) o Strong colonies store a surplus of food reserves during nectar flow  Similar trend for brood (start @ zero) and drone populations  Drone population is zero @ lowest point, rapid spring growth, then sharp decline in early fall  Beekeepers try to overlap seasonal fluctuation with major flowering times w sources, swarming season, mite treatment, brood capacity expansion and when to add/ remove supers Downloaded by Wallace Spataro ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46526011 History of Beekeeping  Honey and wax have been widely used by humans since ancient times  Honey was the most readily available sweetener before sugar cane cultivation  Beeswax is valued as a sealant, lubricant and polish for candles, and as currency  Humans hunted honey bee colonies to steal their honey since 9-10 thousand years ago o 7000 BC Spanish rock painting of human stealing honey  Beekeeping likely started when humans learned to safeguard swarms and colonies by providing some care and keeping them in manmade hives o Earliest records date 4-5 thousand years ago in ancient Egypt o Important spiritual, social and economic role for living and dead o Egyptians used honey as a natural sweetener, as medicine, and alcoholic beverage when fermented o Egyptians transported bee colonies housed in long clay cylinders on boats along the Nile River  Horizontal design still used in Middle East today (honey @ back, retrieved w smoke) o Cleopatra, the Egyptian queen, used honey-based cosmetics  Other Middle Eastern cultures like Babylonians, also kept bees in pottery hives  Greeks and Romans kept bees for honey and wax production and studied them o Believed practice of using royal jelly could make one regal o Romans used honey to sweeten wine o Honey considered part of formula for long life  Aristotle used an observation hive to study their activities, thought queen bee was king, and recommended honey for ailments  Bee hives over time were elongated and made of pottery, wood, wickers, straw or cork o Upside-down wicker baskets became very popular and were widely used in Europe o Clomed skep: reed/ wicker frame covered w mud, dung and ash (not ideal for harvest)  Mentioned in Bible  Qur’am mentions beehives in date palm plantations, first reference if pollination  Scientific basis of beekeeping practices began in 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries o Discovered queen could be reared by bees from egg or young larva o Found large bee was a queen that laid eggs o Found barrel-shaped individuals were males o Workers were females o Queens mate w drones  No native honey bees existed in the New World  Western honey bee, Apis mellifera¸ was introduced to Americas by Europeans in the 17th century o Previously, native Americans kept local species of stingless bees which produced 4-5 times less honey and wax o Western honey bee became more popular and displaced local species of stingless bees rapidly  Most useful and important hive design was developed in USA in 1851 by Reverend Lorenzo L. Langstroth o Patented hive w movable frames in which bees built their combs (previously fixed combs) o Noticed in natural colonies, bees did not build comb across space btwn 2 hanging combs bc they require 9mm space as passage area btwn them= bee space o Designed frames of his hive so that when the comb was drawn in the frames, a space of 9mm remained btwn them and btwn hive walls and the frames o Father of Modern Beekeeping  Other devices invented during 19th century included beeswax foundation, honey extractor, queen excluded, and the smoker o Advances in queen rearing techniques during 19th century too  By early 20th century, foundation of modern beekeeping had been established  Honey bees are now kept in most parts of the world  Beekeepers maintain about 55 million modern hives which produce 950 million kg of honey and 25 million kg of beeswax  About 20 million hives in Europe w annual avg honey yield of o Winter cluster w brood central, food above and to the side o Do not disrupt/ modify this arrangement, other than moving it downward into the lower box  Ensuring venting of moisture from colonies  Late nectar flow or delayed harvest leaves less time for winter prep o Delayed to October or even November in southern areas o Less time confined and without floral resources  Each colony should receive 2 standard inspections in the fall o Amount and position of honey stores, extent and pattern of brood area, adult population size, health, beeswax comb and hive equipment conditions  Colonies that need more attention: Downloaded by Wallace Spataro ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46526011 o Low adult population like captured swarm or late divide o Those w large adult population continuing to raise large amount of brood  To improve overwintering success, centralize brood area in lowest brood box or feed heavy sugar syrup to help compact and reduce brood sphere size  Remove frames w extensive areas of drone cells, poorly drawn or incomplete frame and frames needing repair  At first inspection, majority of colonies may be progressing towards ideal configuration  Colonies started during the season from swarm capture, divides, or installed packages will likely require the most attention  Late spring development, summer drought, or excessive rain may result in greater fall management requirements Fall food stores & feeding  Estimate amount of honey on each frame by weighing and counting o Possible to weight the colony by devising a tripod of metal pipes and rigging a simple pulley system o Experienced beekeepers estimate amount of honey by lifting the back of the hive o Generally overestimate stores, but colonies w too little stores are obvious  Fall feeding is required for colonies low on honey stores and can help compact brood sphere o Many methods available to feed sugar and different equipment o Key to having bees store in the fall is to mix a heavy syrup (2 parts sugar: 1 part water) o Placing directly on top of brood chamber results in faster uptake and storage o Jars/ cans w removable lids work well (put a dozen holes in the lid) o Vacuum created when container is inverted, and bees put proboscis thru holes to suck syrup out o Migratory beekeepers frequently use a single top cover without an inner cover, and feed thru a container that fits on top of the hive thru the hive cover (cover w feeding cap when not feeding) o Other commercial beekeepers prefer to use an in-hive feeder  Replaces frame at edge of top standard hive body  Disadvantage: colony must be opened to refill the feeder o Once started, continue feeding fall syrup for as long as the bees take it (hard to overfeed)  Some beekeepers believe combs of stored sugar syrup is better overwintering feed than honey from fall sources, like goldenrod or aster  Advantage to feeding bees and having them store syrup in the fall is tat they place it in cells from which brood emerges, helping to compact the brood sphere (best position for winter food source)  Possible to feed honey if source colony is free of AFB disease o After extraction, feed bees wet frames or frames w crystallized honey o Open capped cells w hive tool or cappings scratcher and place frames in hive body below brood o Slashed frames can be placed in a box on top of the colony, over the inner cover o Bees will clean up the honey, and rearrange it to above and sides of winter brood cluster  If colonies have surplus honey stores for winter, remove frames or supers and add them to weaker colonies o Can also collect honey from disease free colony and dilute (1:1), then fed to another o Do not feed from barrels or drums  Northern bee colonies have longer winter and require more honey reserves o Gulf coast states survive w 30lbs= 14kg or less o Northern area colonies need up to 90lbs= 40kg o Intermediate need 60lbs =27kg  Should decrease winter losses by managing the amount of honey stores bees have available for winter Fall brood and adult population  Guessing colony size requires practice and refinement  Studies demonstrate colonies of 30,000 is avg-sized in the fall o In the spring, the colony may have half this population or less from disease Downloaded by Wallace Spataro ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46526011  Desirable fall colony should form initial cluster on 5-6 frames ~25,000-30,000 bees  Good management to boost hive population if hive is deficient in adult bees or brood in early fall o Stimulate queen to lay more eggs, since brood pattern reflects queen performance o Not always successful  During second fall inspection, check if brood pattern is compact and spherical, & located in lower portion of hive o Should have few open cells o Reduced laying area by October-November o As bees reduce brood area, colony may initially have spotty brood, and fill empty cells w pollen/ nectar  More likely in colonies selected for hygienic behaviour since mite numbers are increased and more cells are being uncapped to remove mite-infested pupae o Mark to re-examine 1-2 weeks later  If heavily fed, empty cells may contain ripening syrup and brood cells will continue irregular  In large colonies, may use queen excluder to reduce brood pattern (labour intensive) o Place empty frames and those w open brood below queen excluder o Capped brood can stay above the excluder o As cells empty, bees should store honey and bee bread in upper combs o Must remove queen excluder before winter  Easier to manipulate colony by feeding heavy sugar syrup than manipulating w queen excluder  New colonies or those of Italian stock usually have larger, less compact fall brood patterns  If there is a poor queen or too small a population, avoid possible losses by combining weaker & strong colonies o First, reduce each to one box of brood comb and adult population o Then, place one on top of the other w a sheet of newspaper btwn the 2 o Allow the bees to chew the newspaper and mix the 2 units  Another option: transfer frames of capped brood without clinging adults from strong colonies to weaker colonies  Extensive manipulations may demoralize colonies and leave them vulnerable to additional stress  Manipulations must be done early enough to check on the colony and for them to organize for winter Winter Protection & Insulation  Double wall hives, tar paper wraps, burying colonies, moving hives to protected environments, heat tape or light bulbs, and other protective measures are not generally necessary for colony survival o May be harmful if insulating from warming spring temp o Artificially heated colonies eat more food stores  Colonies survive well if protected from winter winds and are able to vent excess moisture  Hive insulation  Dark materials to catch winter sun  Materials to absorb moisture on top of hive or provide dead air space beneath hive  Beekeepers in areas w extreme winters, like Canada, Nothern EU, and Northern Asia prefer extra protection o May move to insulated, dark buildings while providing constant air exchange and temp control o Many Northern US commercial beekeepers harvest most honey and truck to warmer climate  Sunny areas out of direct wind are best for overwintering, which apiary may lack (provide temporary one)  If colonies otherwise well-prepared do not survive, beekeeper should look for alternative wintering sites o Do not overlook reliable spring source of pollen  Should provide upward ventilation in every hive during the winter o Some bees propolize heavily, so removing covers and scraping it off to allow warm, moist air to escape from the top of the colony is good late-fall management o Alternative is wooden shim, carpet tack or stick in one corner of the top hive (only need small vent) o Some beekeepers drill holes in hive bodies or use spacers or inner covers designed to allow air ventilation  Many beekeepers combine top insulation and upper ventilation (prevents moisture dripping) o W top insulation, they can reach honey reserves otherwise unavailable Downloaded by Wallace Spataro ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46526011 Unit 10: Other Products and Benefits from Bees Beeswax, royal jelly, pollen, bee venom, propolis, and bees; pollination activities & role in food production Other Hive Products Reading pages 260-1, 263-6 Beeswax  Hydrocarbon secretion of bee’s special 4 pairs of abdominal glands  Wax secreted as clear-white scales and molded by mouthparts (darkens w time)  Used as building material in hive for bees to draw comb and cap honey & pupal cells  Lighter than water (density=0.95) w melting point =62 C  Consists of fairly short 16-34 hydrocarbon acid and alcohol chains  Very stable, not subject to deterioration and has a very pleasant aroma  Obtained by melting cappings from honey extraction in a mold o When the cappings cool off, the wax floats on the water and can be removed o Lower part contains water and honey  Cleaned to remove particles of dirt & debris, further filtered for use in candles or cosmetics  Can melt comb, burr/brace comb and hive scrapings to obtain beeswax but it is lower quality w darker colour and contains more impurities  Nearly ½ of beeswax used in the world comes from Africa, where destruct harvest is practiced o Swarms are captured or baited, establish nest in darkened containers/ rustic hives o Once hived, bees construct comb, rear brood and store honey o Nests are robbed for honey and brood, which are consumed, and wax is melted and sold for export o In tropical Africa, bees driven from comb either migrate or return to rebuild and fill new comb  Used for comb foundation, in candles, cosmetics (cream, ointment, lotion, lipstick), polishes, dental impression wax, varnishes, and insulation material in electronic products, food processing, bowstrings, printing o Fragrance and purity has been used for centuries in candles, cosmetics, and high quality polishing wax o Early uses: strips of clean linen dipped in melted wax were used to bind wounds  Waterproofing leather, smoothing sewing yarn, and as primitive chewing gum o Lost-wax technique: craft and mold art and jewelry, then melted when finished product was ready o Encaustic painting: graphic art for that uses beeswax and pigments for painting o Beeswax candles were preferred light source until modern times, and represented purity and virginity in Catholic church o Was used to fill dental cavities (6500 year-old human mandible from Slovenia) to relieve pain o Weld loose thread ends, lubricate needles or nails, dental impression wax, pill coatings, industrial lubricant, saltwater corrosion preventive, metal castings and molds, ski/snowshoe wax, crayons, Pollen  Produced by male reproductive cells of flowering plants (species, season, and location- variation in amount)  Used as source of nutrients (proteins, lipids, and vitamins) for brood rearing and to feed newly-emerged adults  No single pollen source supplies all EAA  Bees receive necessary protein for growth and development by mixing pollens (vary 7-65% protein)  Collected w traps placed at bottom of hives o Have a hardware cloth thru which returning foragers must pass (beehive entrance) o Pollen pellets in pollen baskets (legs) are scraped off by the hardware cloth and fall into collecting tray o Most bees loose their pollen pellets (70-85% efficient) o Should only be used in strong colonies o Recommended used on alternating biweekly schedule (2 weeks w trap, 2 weeks without trap) during blooming season (bees need large amounts of pollen for proper nutr and colony development) o Collected from trap tray twice a week Downloaded by Wallace Spataro ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46526011  Dried by exposing pellets to suns’ rays or in drying ovens  Used as dietary supplement (proteins & vitamins) for humans and animals o Used as bee food to stimulate colony growth o Pollen for human consumption is sold bottled or encapsulated or pelleted  Advocated for treatment for sterility, prostate gland disorders, cancer, allergy relief, and skin care  Athletes have advocated pollen use for stamina, weight gain and body conditioning  Before consuming large quantities, individuals should ensure they can tolerate it in their diet o Allergic rxns are rare but possible  Varies in colour, and potential nutritional and medicinal value  Pollen must be collected for use in manual human pollination of plants or when pollen inserts are used o Plants forced into early blood and fresh pollen is collected directly from flowers  Bee-collected pollen is fed as a protein to other animals including pet fish, reptiles, and birds  Beekeepers can trap and store pollen, then re-feed it to colonies when there is low natural pollen o E.g. early spring to stimulate colony growth Propolis  Sticky, resinous gum gathered by bees from flower buds, trees and shrubs  Used as sealing, caulking, and preserving (antibacterial & antifungal) material in the hive  Some bee races used it to reduce their hive entrance  Varies in composition depending on plant source o Contains mixture of resins and volatile oils with antimicrobial properties  Obtained by scraping hive parts (frames and boxes) or by using special inserts w slots/ holes that mimic cracks  Inserts (plastic grids) are made of metal or plastic (mosquito nets could be used to obtain propolis) o Place inserts btwn upper super and inner cover of a hive o Bees will fill inserts w propolis o Inserts are frozen and then propolis can be easily removed  Used to varnish, polish and waterproof wood (violins?)  In folk medicine, used to treat wounds, burns, ulcers, and bronchitis  Used in treatment of cancer, anemia, skin conditions, immune and cardiovascular system disorders  Industrial used as additive for soap, toothpaste, mouthwash, creams and cosmetics  More research is needed to demonstrate therapeutic properties, and most importantly, possible side effects  Sold in capsules or diluted in ethanol as tinctures o Dilute liquid, or mixed into sugar or honey in the form of tablets of lozenges Royal Jelly  Creamy-white viscous secretion from head glands of young worker bees  Nurse bees feed queen and young larvae (first ½ development) w it  Contains sugars, proteins, FA, vitamins (B complex & C) and some organic acids  High moisture content but highly resistant to spoilage by bacteria, yeast or molds  Quickly decomposes at room temp  Colonies used to produce royal jelly are left queen-less and frequently supplied w capped brood to maintain strength and supply lots of young workers  Larvae (12-36 hours old) obtained from queen-right colony are grafted and transferred into artificial queens that are attached to a frame (queen cups/ cells)  Frame containing artificial cells and larvae is introduced into a queenless colony o 3 days later, larvae are discarded and royal jelly is collected w spoon or vacuum device o Each yields about 200mg o Then refrigerated or frozen before preparing it for sale (spoils at room temp)  Strained to remove wax and old larval skins  Used as dietary supplement as a source of vitamins and FA, and in animal food o Can be sold in capsules, mixed w honey or lyophilized Downloaded by Wallace Spataro ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46526011 o Pungent odour and somewhat bitter taste  Also used in cosmetics industry in creams  No scientific evidence of therapeutic effects o Limited studies claim antibiotic and wound-healing and anti-cholesterol and triglyceride reducing effects o Some recommend for benefits to skin, general body and mental health o Insufficient to market royal jelly as medicine Bee Venom  Bees inoculate venom when they sting intruders  Can be obtained w electrical grids sold for this purpose o After receiving an electrical shock, bees sting and release their venom o Venom dries out on recipient at bottom of electrical device from which it is scraped off  Used to desensitize persons suffering allergic rxns to bee stings  In folk medicine, it is used to treat arthritis and MS by directly forcing bees to sting the affected area of patients o Not medically approved (multiple sclerosis)  More research on therapeutic benefits and side effects are required  Force adult bee to sting while holding it w forceps Bee Brood  Direct consumption is not common  High in protein, Vit A, Vit D, and has no harmful ingredients  Cage-housed animals like caged birds, pet reptiles, small mammals, poultry, and fish, and human-reared insects can benefit from bee brood in the diet  Prepared fried, pickled, smoked, baked, and brandied but reluctance to sample, esp. when final product looked like a bee  Part of family’s diet in destruct harvest systems o Can harvest 3-4 pounds from a standard colony o Easy to shake larvae and pupae (after cutting off wax cappings) from the frame  Bee brood and insects are potential dietary additions for humans bc of high levels of usable protein o Locusts, termites, and ants are primary herbivores, efficient at food conversion (like chicken) o Least efficient grasshopper converts similarly to cattle Live bees have demonstrated usefulness in bioassay monitoring  Inexpensive, easy to condition, and relatively easy to maintain for use in environmental detection exps  Can indicate environmental pollution, warfare agents, drugs, and human illnesses Mead  Honey wine  Ancient alcoholic beverage, perhaps the oldest fermented drink brewed from honey, water, and yeast w common win ingredients added  Honey ferments when diluted w water (dilute sugar at room temp ferments naturally)  Controlling the process produces an alcoholic beverage from simple low-alcohol content beer or ale to highly- prized wine/ champagne type beverage  Like any wine, yeast cells attack sugar, releasing CO2 and alcohol  To make high-quality wine, use mild-flavoured honey, high quality wine yeast, and few trace additions  Dry mead is less sweet (use less honey) 3lbs in 1 gallon water  Hydrometer measures sugar conc of honey-water mixture o Dry wine: 22% solution w specific gravity of 1.095 o Sweet wine: 25%+ solution w specific gravity 1.110 Downloaded by Wallace Spataro ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46526011 Crop Pollination Reading pages 289-299 Pollination  Transfer of pollen grains containing sperm cells from anther (male repro organ) to stigma (female repro organ) or flowers in angiosperms (flowering plants)  After being deposited on flower stigma, a pollen tube grows from a pollen grain and travels down the style  Resulting in fertilization of ovules contained in flower carpel (pollen grain & ovule nuclei combine)  Necessary step in sexual reproduction of flowering plants, resulting in seed and fruit production  Calyx: outermost part of flower that contains sepals, which cover the flower bud o Inside the calyx is the corolla which is made of petals, which attract pollinators o Innermost part, the pistil contains female sex organs (stigma, style & ovary) o Stigma is where pollen is captured, and if correct species and environment, pollen tube grows thru style to the ovary, containing ovule(s) o Usually ovary becomes fruit and ovule(s) become seed(s)  Male repro organ, stamens, are usually positioned above the petals o Each stamen has a stalk/ filament w anther at the top, where germ cells are produced Types of Pollination  Self-pollination: transfer of pollen from same flower, same plant, of plants of identical genetic material (other plants of the same variety), and flowers must be self-compatible  Cross-pollination: transfer of pollen to flowers of different variety (e.g. apples) and must be cross-compatible  Honey bees are effective cross-pollinators  Monosexual flower have only male or female repro organs, like cucurbits  Hermaphrodite flowers have both male and female organs, like apples, citrus, peaches and pears  Many flowering plants evolved methods to promote cross-pollination  Plants w self-compatible pollen may benefit from cross-pollination  Cross-pollination is associated w plant vigor and species survival  Some plants developed modifications to prevent pollen from the anther from reaching the same flower stigma o Pollen matures before stigma is receptive, self-incompatibility within a flower  Female/ Pistillate flower: if male pollen-producing anthers are absent but female parts function normally  Male/ Staminate flower: if female pistil is absent, altered or nonfunctional but anthers still produce pollen o Monoecious plants: produce pollen on one portion of the plant and the pistil is located elsewhere on the same plant (corn pollen in tassels to pistils in silk, cucumber) o Dioecious plants: opposite flower types; sexes on separate plants  E.g. Holly, dates  Many plants secrete nectar to attract pollinators, who may feed on pollen or only transfer it  Cross-pollination isn’t deliberate; inevitable transfer of pollen grains adhering to body hairs from anther to stigma  Pollination does not result in greater seed/ fruit yield, but can induce an earlier and more uniform crop, and influence quality and quantity Downloaded by Wallace Spataro ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46526011 Pollinating Agents  Pollination can be biotic or abiotic  Abiotic pollination (non-living means) is by wind or water and occurs in 10% of flowering plants  Biotic pollination by living organisms (> 200,000 animals, mostly insects) occurs in over 80% of flowering plants o Primary pollinating agents are vertebrates (zoophily) and insects (entomophily)  Important vertebrates: birds (mainly hummingbirds), bats, and some rodents  Insects: mainly bees, as well as flies, butterflies, moths, wasps, and beetles o Vanilla and date crops are human hand-pollinated o Human intervention in greenhouses and when environmental conditions aren’t sufficient  Tomatoes, kiwi, and cucurbits (squash, cucumber, melons) formerly hand- pollinated w vibrating tooth brushes, but are now primarily pollinated by bumble bees (buzz-pollination) who forage in a way they vibrate the flower o Chinese Farmers (Sichuan Province) hand pollinate apples and pears due to lack of natural pollinators o Mechanical devices (vibrating toothbrush) used in plant breeding pollination  Long historical mutualistic relationship btwn flowering plants and pollinators o Both evolved adaptations to benefit each other, including morphological, behavioural, and phenological adaptations o Plants have evolved flowers w particular colours, w shapes adapted to specific pollinator bodies, and scents and rewards (nectar & pollen) to attract pollinators o Pollinators have evolved structures specialized for pollen collection and transportation, and behaviours to maximize foraging success  E.g. pollen baskets in bees, fly around to same species Insect Pollinators  Insects perform most biotic pollination  Ants, aphids, bees, beetles, butterflies, flies & midges, mosquitoes, moths, thrips, and wasps  Critical in production of food and sustaining biodiversity; central to natural and agricultural ecosystems  Maintains wild plant species diversity & organisms that depend on flowering plants, and impacts food production  Almost 40% of our total diet in western countries results from insect pollination services (mainly bees)  Pollination, esp. cross-pollination results in increased ag crop quantity and quality o E.g. hay produced from alfalfa-pollinated seeds is used to produce dairy products o Estimated value of ag crops resulting from insect pollination is $361 USD/ year globally  Use of insecticides, herbicides, mowing pastures and roadsides, overgrazing pasture land has contributed to pollinator decline  Need ways to conserve and augment (supplement) natural pollinators since less are present around monocultures Bees as Pollinators  Most important and specialized pollinators  Have morphological traits and behaviours that make them efficient at pollinating flowers o Hairs adapted to transport pollen grains and baskets on hind legs to carry pollen pellets o Show fidelity: forage on single plant species  More than 20,000 bee species, most of them living solitary lives (95%)  Other species including honey bees, bumble bees, and stingless bees live in common nests composed of hundreds to thousands of individuals in societies w divisions of labour  Canada has more than 800 bee species, half of which exist in ON  Managed bees, including the honeybee Apis mellifera, the bumble bee Bombus impatiens, the blue orchard mason bee Osmia lignaria, and the alfalfa leafcutter bee Megachile rotundata are used for commercial crop pollination o Alkali bees according to textbook Downloaded by Wallace Spataro ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46526011  Bumble bees (Bombus impatiens) are effective pollinators but are usually too few in numbers to pollinate more than a small percentage of insect-pollinated plants and population fluctuate every year o Posses long proboscis, making them v effective in pollinating deep, narrow tubular flower like squash o Fly and orient better in greenhouses and colder climates than honey bees o Conservation efforts are needed to preserve species richness and nesting density o Soil nesters, so burying wooden/ plastic nest boxes in the ground can be useful o Hay bales and decaying plant debris provides nesting materials and cavities  Stock nest materials w overwintering queens in the spring or rely on natural population o Quad nests are purchased for greenhouse pollination, esp. tomatoes and kiwi (field watermelon?) o Colony price was once $600 but is now under $200  Alfalfa leaf cutting bee (Megachile rotundata) is a valuable pollinator of alfalfa, esp. in Western US and CAN o Introduced to US from Eastern Europe/ Western Asia in 1930 o Solitary bees but females aggregate nests together when building o Build nest in series of cells in materials like beetle burrows and hollow stems but adapt well o Partitions cells in hole of suitable diameter and cells are made w pieces of cut leaves o Each cell receives ball made of pollen and nectar, and she lays an egg on top o One cell is sealed and another is built in front (5-10 cells) o Nectar & pollen often from select few or only one plant species o Completed nests are saved from one season to the next to ensure large continuous populations o Do not provide honey or other products  Alkali bee (Nomia melanderi) is a native bee o Confined to locations where soil is irrigated over hardpan layer, leading to moist, relatively bare alkali spots suitable for nest sites o Commercially, large tubs of suitable soil are created and moved to provide adequate population levels o Excellent alfalfa pollinators o Forage in somewhat cooler, windier weather than the leafcutting bee o Used bc it foragers in lower foliage that other pollinators may miss o Major drawbacks: pathogens, predators, and specific soil-nesting requirements  Blue orchard bee (Osmia lignaria) a tube nester that adapts easily to straws or holes in wood o Currently being used extensively in Japan for orchard pollination o Relative, horn-faced bee (O. cornifrons) is similar but does better under humid conditions o Neither are widely adopted in US despite research about their effectiveness  Value of alfalfa leafcutter bees to alfalfa seed industry is $6 million/ year in Canadian prairies o Pollination results in increased alfalfa production equivalent to 600% return on investment  Unmanaged bee species are also very important pollinators to ag and wild plant species  Encouraging natural pollinator conservation is important since we’re finding they’re suffering from negative environmental conditions  Nectar foragers are less efficient pollinators than pollen foragers Honey Bees as Pollinators  Most important plant pollinators  Perennial colony, nectar & pollen are their only food, plumose body hairs, flower fidelity, and populations can be manipulated  Efforts to direct bees to certain flower have not been successful o Feeding the colony syrup or spraying the colony w the essence of the target flower odours isn’t reliable  Currently recommended that colonies aren’t moved to a crop until flowering starts, otherwise they’ll establish forging patterns to other flowers prior to the blood of the desired plant o Waiting too long can be detrimental since many plants produce bigger & better fruits on dominant bloom  An under-utilized strategy is to select plants that are more attractive to pollinators and breed these qualities  Development of pheromone-based attractants show potential for improving honeybee pollination Downloaded by Wallace Spataro ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46526011 o Synthetic queen substance and brood pheromone increase foraging o Synthetic Nasonov-scent-gland pheromone sprayed onto flowering plants may increase pear, onion and cantaloupe yield, but not consistently  Thru their pollination services, they’re responsible for production of over 25% of food derived from ag crops consumed in the western world o 10% of human diet is insect pollinator dependent o Almonds, peaches, soybeans, apples, pears, cherries, raspberries, blueberries, strawberries, watermelon, cantaloupes, cucumbers and many fruit trees o Many, but not all, of these plants can be pollinated by other insects (including other bees) o On a per-individual basis, many other insect species are actually more efficient at pollinating for the crop types where honey bees are used o Most native pollinators cannot be mass utilized (commercial scale) as easily or as effectively as honey bees o Honey bee hives can be moved on trucks from crop to crop as need and the bees will visit many plants in large numbers, compensating saturation for what they lack in efficiency o Commercial viability of these crops are strongly tied to honeybees and the beekeeping industry  Beehive rental makes most of beekeepers income o Cost of renting a single hive is $150 for the blooming period of a crop o Over 2.5 million hive rentals in US ever year for 90 crops grown on 3.5 million acres o Almonds in California account for almost 50% of pollination rental business  In the US, value of honey bee pollination of ag crops is estimated $18 billion USD/ year o 10 times higher globally  In Canada, the value of honey bee pollination exceeds $1.5 billion/ year o Estimated 300,000 honey bee colonies pollinate canola and more than 35,000 pollinate blueberries Managing Bee Colonies for Pollination  Main goal in managing bee colonies for pollination is to rent strong colonies to growers  Strong colonies provide more field bees, forage longer, at lower temp and stronger winds  Colonies w only one brood box are advantageous bc they are easier to move and stimulate foragers when return directly into the brood nest, but many growers request large colonies  Bee colonies rented for early blooming crops (apples & almonds) must be stimulated early in the season by feeding sugar syrup of supplemental protein patties to develop strong expanding populations at bloom time o Weak colonies should be bolstered/ boosted by brood from strong colonies, united w nucleus or stronger colony, or boosted w package of bees o Package bees hived 2-3 weeks before pollination rental are ineffective  Should be managed on pollination sites o Difficult as moving staples/ bands have to be removed for inspection and reapplied o Short-term feeding increases pollen collectors among foraging population o Trapping pollen reduces brood rearing which reduces crop pollination o Pollen insert that fits on colony entrance (pollen-filled tray) may temporarily increase cross-pollination  Better results when bees must walk thru pollen dusted on them w soft bristle brush  Breeding bees for better pollination may be possible  W some crops its possible to assess pollinator success, but failure to produce properly sized or adequate numbers may be environmentally linked, due to insufficient fertilizer or micronutrients, or other reasons o Usually not possible to determine pollinator success until flower appearance, which is too late  Colonies are generally moved at night to ensure the majority of foragers are inside the hive o Hives are fastened (staples, metal/ plastic strips) and their entrances closed w screens before being moved o Hives are transported on trucks covered w netting and loaded/ unloaded w forklift/ truck o Pallets hold 4-8 colonies each o In warm weather use moving screen to replace top hive cover, occasionally spray w water, (fridge truck) Downloaded by Wallace Spataro ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46526011 o Empty hive can be left at old location to trap foragers  Number of colonies rented per acre/ hectare varies w the crop o Standard is 1 colony/ acre or /2.5 hectares o Usually estimate foraging population w number of frames occupied by bees or area of brood nest o Generally minimum size for renting is smaller earlier in the season  Almond/ fruit trees vs blueberries/ cucumber o Cucumber estimate: 1 colony/ 3-4 acres, 1-3 colonies/ acre, 1 bee /100 flowers, 1 colony/ 50,000 plants o More than 1 colony/acre in hard-to-pollinate or high-density crops Pollinator Shortage and Pollinator Decline  Pollination of food crops and wild plants has become an environmental issue worldwide  Modern ag practices have led to establishment of monocultures which demand greater conc of pollinators at bloom time and negatively impact the pollinators, resulting in their decline  Pollinator populations are declining due to pesticides, diseases, and removal of nesting sites and food sources  Insufficient pollination increases the vulnerability of some plant species near extinction and decreases crop yields  Honey bee colonies have been lost at rates over 30%/ year o Unprecedented and unsustainable in the long term  CCD used to characterize this massive loss of honey bee colonies o Many suspects have been suggested but no clear explanation has yet been found o Causes of record mortality of honey bee colonies remain undetermined, but most scientists agree it is likely due to a combination of several factors  Viruses, parasites, and diseases, colony-transportation-related stresses, single-source diets, inclement weather, and pesticides o Seems that a broad suite of stresses is taking its toll on honey bees o Stress increases susceptibility to illness  Capacity to ward off primary infection of larval and adult diseases is reduced  Capacity to fight secondary infections is reduced o Many factors are shown to be associated w CCD o When info published about culprits is analyzed, the causes most frequently associated w colony die-offs are ectoparasitic mite Varroa destructor and neonicotinoid insecticides To accurately determine number of pollinators needed, growers & beekeepers should determine rate flowers are visited, number of visits required for full pollination, pollinating efficiency per flower visitor, number of pollen grains deposited on stigma, effective pollination period, proper conditions for stigma receptivity, pollinator movement within the crop, number of flower/ area, daily pattern of flower attractiveness and more Downloaded by Wallace Spataro ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46526011 Unit 11: Diseases and Parasites Brood and Adult Bee Diseases Reading pages 331-345  Have more diseases/ pests than any other insect, granted more is known about bees  Pesticides used to control plant and animal pests can have a negative impact on bees and beekeeping  More than 20 diseases affect honey bees  4 may cause serious damage (AFB, EFB, chalkbrood and nosema disease)  Can be studied according to o Etiology/ cause: parasites, fungi, bacteria, viruses o Affected developmental stages: adult bees/ brood Brood Diseases  Relatively easy to identify in the field w some practice, allowing early control, minimizing damaging effects  Should be inspected every time colony brood nest is opened (spring and fall visits)  Beekeepers should familiarize themselves w appearance of healthy brood o Healthy larvae are white coloured (should be centered, w food evidence in cell, and move) o Capped brood area of a healthy colony is compact & solid w most cells capped  90% w egg, larva or pupa, w areas of similar age o Pupae: healthy sealed-brood caps should be uniform light-brown colour, six-sided and higher in middle  Cells in the process of being capped may have one hole in the center of the cell-covering cap  Pupa will not move in the cell  Beekeepers should look for abnormal appearance of brood pattern bc early detection of disease is critical for strong and productive colonies (shotgun patter= spotty brood conditions) o Spotty brood also occurs in the fall, when empty brood cells used to store pollen/ nectar, or when brood was killed by sudden cold weather, pesticide or toxic nectar  Diseased brood are similar to abnormal brood from chilled or starving brood, or damage from insecticide or plant poisoning  Page 332 summary chart of ¾ (not chalkbrood)  Includes AFB, EFB, chalkbrood and sacbrood (in order of damaging effects) American Foulbrood  Infectious and highly contagious disease that causes old larvae and pupae to decay  Most serious disease of honey bees/ most serious brood disease world-wide  Can kill colonies and spread to other colonies in apiary (robbing) if not treated  Larvae up to 4 DOA can be infested w the bacteria  Etiology/ cause: Paenibacillus larvae, a spore-forming, gram +ve bacterium (rod length 2.5-5 microns) o Spores are very resistant to most antiseptic substances, heat and cold and remain viable for decades  Transmission: spread by bees robbing and drifting behaviour, but spores can also be carried by queens and workers (in queen cages) o Beekeepers may spread by exchanging comb btwn colonies and feeding contaminated honey/ pollen  Disease development o Disease is latent on comb and becomes noticeable as the colony starts building in population o Queen starts laying eggs early in the season, larvae hatch, and nurse bees infect young larvae (1 inch is formed (like cheese thread) o Dead larvae rope out and snap back o Diagnosed in lab by observing spores of P. larvae under microscope or using biochem/ immune/ molecular tests (honey free sample of brood comb) o Must be reported to OMAFRA when diagnosed in Ontario  Control: OMAFRA recommends preventative treatments of all colonies with oxytetracycline (Oxytet-25/ Oxysol 62.5) mixed w powdered sugar in the spring and fall o Spread one spoonful over the top bars of the brood chamber o Tylosin is an approved antibiotic for preventative treatments in Canada  Must be stopped 4 weeks before honey flow begins to prevent contamination o Queens from hygienic stock sold by queen breeders could be acquired to reduce incidence (AFB resistant)  BC it’s highly contagious and antibiotics are only active against vegetative stage of bacterium, not the spore, treatment of the disease is subject to province/ state/ country laws in which the colony is kept  Treatment options: o Terramycin, the antibiotic oxytetracycline kills the vegetative stage, not spores so treatment must continue to prevent symptoms (if sold treatment likely to stop), resistant since 90s o Tylan (tylosin tartrate) and Lincomix (lincomycin hydrochloride)  No antibiotics should be used prophylactically (preventative), esp. during nectar flow o Some beekeepers attempt to save adult bee population by shaking them into a cage, and holding them without food to purge their system of the spores  Then put in frames w prophylactic Terramycin and sugar syrup  Selects for Terramycin-resistant spores, which then spread  Burning kills all stages of AFB, preventing pathogen spread (careful to prevent robbing before & during) o In Ontario, colonies found to be positive to AFB are burned o Sometimes part of the equipment like empty boxes/ inner cover and lid can be saved  Disinfected by scorching it or ethylene oxide kills spores (carcinogen)  Disinfect by boiling in lye/ coating in boiled paraffin, but risk of re-infestation  Gamma irradiation shows promise o Bees are killed w 3% soap water solution and burned w brood and equipment o Should be done in evening after bee flights end to ensure destruction of entire colony o Less risk if done in pit dug in the apiary (may be illegal w local burn laws)  If inspection shows a few infected larvae, some colonies may survive, usually hygienic strains o Bees are diligent in removing infected larvae before spores form  Purchasing/ recycling of used bee equipment is very risky (spores remain viable for decades)  Honey extracted from AFB infested colonies is safe for human consumption Downloaded by Wallace Spataro ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46526011 European Foulbrood (EFB)  Infectious and highly contagious disease that causes young larvae and pupae to decay  Less damaging than AFB but may weaken infected colonies  Etiology/ cause: Melissococcus plutonius a bacterium that unlike P. larvae does not form spores o Short, lancet-shaped bacteria that can survive on comb walls from one season to another o Usually initiates infection and when larvae are debilitated, other bacteria from bees’ microbiome grow and kill infected larvae (worker, drone and queen larvae)  Transmission: similar to AFB  Disease development: similar to AFB w mild effects except when bees are under stressful conditions (like moved for pollination  Symptoms: scattered brood pattern o Affected larvae are observed coiled/ twisted within their cells without removing cappings (die young) o Changes in brood morphology and colour are similar to those of AFB (yellow to brown colour changes) o Odour of diseases larvae is different: sour odour similar to vinegar o After drying, diseased larvae leaves scales in cells which can easily be removed o Kills younger larvae than AFB, and cruddy material of Parasitic Mite Syndrome is similar  Diagnosis: toothpick test is negative (no ropy/ sticky conditions observed); dead larvae easy to remove o Can also be diagnosed in the lab w similar tests to those used to diagnose AFB  Control: preventative and curative treatments are recommended by OMAFRA (same as AFB) o Colonies do not have to be burned bc bacterium does not sporulate and therefore can be killed w antibiotics (only if bees don’t handle it) o Equipment does not need to be disinfected either, maybe requeen o Best preventative measure if keeping hygienic bees and strong colonies o Stress disease seen in spring colony or colonies moved for pollination  Colonies have been unnecessarily destroyed bc of incorrect AFB diagnosis Chalkbrood/ Ascosphaerosis  Infectious and contagious fungal disease that causes young larvae and pupae to harden and die  Less damaging than AFB and EFB; weakens and decreases productivity but rarely kills  Etiology/ cause: caused by fungus Ascosphaera apis, of which there are many strains in varying virulence o Severity of infection depends on fungal strain and number of diseased larvae o Fungus reproduces when mycelia (threadlike structures that pierce tissues of infected larvae) of opposite sex overlap, forming spores o Spores may be viable on the comb walls for 15+ years  Transmission similar to AFB  Disease development: larva becomes infected when @ 3-4 days old it ingests spores w food o Fungus germinates in bees’ hindgut, mycelia develop, pierce larval tissues (swell) and mummify the larva o Hardens larva and gives chalk-like appearance  Predisposing factors: stress-related disease; several factors make larvae more susceptible o Chilling temp, weak colonies, moisture, poor ventilation, pollen-trapping, colonies fed contaminated pollen and antibiotic abuse (upset equilibrium of larval intestinal microbiota)  Symptoms: brood mummified w chalk-like appearance in open and capped cells, on bottom boards, and in front of hive entrance (dropped by cleaning bees) o Mummies may be dark in colour due to presence of spore-cysts  Diagnosis: very easy to do in the field by observing mummified brood o Mummies rattle if a comb containing them is shaken o Microscopic observation of the fungus spore-cysts may be used to confirm, but molecular techniques are normally used  Control: provide colonies w young queens and combs containing healthy brood (no treatment) Downloaded by Wallace Spataro ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46526011 o Prevent predisposing factors: raise hives from ground and tilt to drain water and minimize moisture, place colonies where they’re not exposed to cold air current, open hive entrances, and avoid using antibiotics Stonebrood is a rare fungal brood disease that results in mummification of infected larvae, turning them hard and black -causative agent is used to produce the antibiotic fumagillin, which is used to treat nosema disease in adult bees Sacbrood (SBV= sacbrood virus)  Infectious and contagious disease that causes larvae to die inside molted skin (creates a sac)  Not a serious problem bc the number of affected larvae is usually small  Etiology/ cause: RNA virus Morator aetatulas (common cold equivalent in bees)  Transmission: similar to AFB  Disease development: larvae acquire virus bc infected queens lay contaminated eggs (vertical transmission) or infected when fed by nurse bees (horizontal transmission) o Larvae die within a sac/ their skin bc they are unable to molt their cuticle, before pupation  Symptoms: larvae observed in open and capped cells contained within sac/ skin o Head of a diseased larva is hardened, darkened and dies with an upright head  Control: provide colony w combs containing healthy brood and use queens from a hygienic stock  Treatment: requeen, consider moving colonies since location may pronounce infestation  Dead, sac-like, leathery skinned larva is easily removed from the cell  Infestations seen in fall/ spring disappear during the summer months Black Queen Cell Virus (BQCV)  Kills capped queen larvae and prepupae  Infected larvae resemble sacbrood infected workers w tough, leathery sac-like appearance that turns black  Capped cells containing infected prepupa are darker in colour  No control except requeening w different stock and improving nosema control (some association) Kashmir Bee Virus (KBV) and acute bee paralysis virus (ABPV) infest brood and are both seen w CCD, and believed to be transmitted by varroa mites -brood symptoms aren’t distinctive but adults tremble and are disoriented in front of infested hive Idiopathic brood disease syndrome (IBDS), w colony queen replacement events are the largest risk factors for predicting colony death -characterized by high percentage of larval deaths in colonies where varroa mite levels and viruses are lower than predicted (dead brood are molten/ liquid on bottom on cell) 18 different viruses have been identified in bees Infected larva will not have more than one disease pathogen (AFB & rarely in colony together but others can be) Colonies w EFB or chalkbrood in spring usually lack disease symptoms later in the season when weather and forage improve Adult Bee Diseases  Mainly nosema disease, deformed wing syndrome, paralysis and other virosis  Difficult to diagnose in the field bc in many cases bees do not show symptoms or symptoms are common to several disease o May resemble non-disease factors that cause adult mortality like old age or insecticide poisoning  Important to know disease impact on bee health and colony productivity to control them where they’re endemic  Little can be done remedy wise Nosema Disease/ Nosemosis  Infectious disease of digestive tract of adult honey bees caused by unicellular fungi  The most common & serious of adult bee diseases affecting colony development and productivity Downloaded by Wallace Spataro ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46526011  Infected queens are superseded, leading to colony weakening, plus less brood reared, reduced honey production  Etiology/ cause: microscopic microsporidin fungi Nosema apis and/or Nosema ceranae o Nosema spores are resistant to disinfectants and viable (latent on comb) for more than one year  Disease development: young bees use their tongues to clean combs soiled w faeces containing Nosema spores for the queen to lay eggs during early spring and summer and become infected o Nosema spores germinate in the midgut of infected bees and the vegetative/ growing form of the parasite penetrates epithelial cells in adult midgut, where it multiplies, destroying them when full of spores o May also be found in hypopharyngeal glands and ovaries of infected queens o Infected workers are unable to digest and absorb nutrients, shortening life o Results in slow colony development if many bees are affected o Pathogen population builds when confined or stressed (winter, transport, no food)  Symptoms: dwindling and crawling bees, dead bees in front of hive entrance, bees w wings open (trying to fly), bees w dark, hairless thorax, presence of faeces at hive entrance (diarrhea) or top bars of frames (poor winter clustering)  Diagnosis: microscopic exam of bees abdomen is necessary o If positive, spores are counted w haemocytometer (chamber used to count blood cells in mammals) to determine sample infection level (crush 25 bees in bag, add 25ml water, examine liquid) o Molecular techniques used to identify the Nosema species  Control: renewing old combs and disinfecting them w acetic acid or gamma irradiation o Feed sugar syrup (1 gallon) containing 100mg of antibiotic fumagillin (Fumidil B) in fall when infection levels are over 1 million spores/ bee (ideal to move colony to sunny location w winter protection) Deformed Wing Syndrome  Infectious disease of viral origin, that only affects adults (US early 90s)  The most damaging of all viral diseases bc infected bees have smaller bodies, deformed wings, and live shorter  If a high proportion of bees in a colony are affected, the colony may collapse  Etiology/ cause: deformed wing virus (DWV)  Disease development: bees are infected horizontally thru wounds caused by varroa and tracheal mites o Can be transmitted vertically o Becomes more apparent and damaging in the presence of varroa mites o Mites function as vectors & virus replicates in mites and they transmit high viral titers to larvae and adults  Symptoms: small discoloured bees w deformed or absent wings (underweight & unhealthy bees)  Diagnosis: by immunological or molecular tests (ELISA/ PCR)  Control: requeening affected colonies and controlling varroa mite infestations since mites vector and promote CWV replication Paralysis  Also a syndrome that may be caused by several viruses  Viral infections affect the nervous system and kill them in a few days  Not considered a serious problem bc usually only a few individuals in the colony are affected  Like most viral diseases, the disorder is poorly understood  Etiology/ cause: chronic bee paralysis virus (CBPV), acute bee paralysis virus (ABPV), Israeli acute paralysis virus (IAPV), and/ or Kashmir bee virus (KBV)  Disease development: can be horizontally infected w contaminate food or thru wounds caused by varroa and tracheal mites o Can be vertically transmitted by queen thru infected eggs o Predispositions: inbreeding and hereditary factors  Symptoms: trembling bees w open wings, crawling at the hive or in front of the hive entrance o Dark, hairless, greasy bodies (hairless black syndrome) caused by CBPV, only in adult bees o Sometimes affected bees are attacked by healthy workers who are trying to remove them from the colony  Diagnosis: by immunological/ molecular tests like ELISA/ PCR Downloaded by Wallace Spataro ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46526011  Control: by requeening affected colonies and controlling mite infestations since mites vector viruses  IAPV, ABPV, and KBV are transmitted by varroa mites, and affect adults and larvae o Frequently seen w CCD, seem to be able to rapidly proliferate and subside Varroa and tracheal mites are virus vectors and nurse bees spread viruses within a colony (clean up dead brood) Some adult bees are found w unusually high amoeba (protozoan) in Malpighian tubules (significance unclear) Bacteria Pseudomonas apiseptica in adults causes septicemia, causing breakdown of CT (putrid odour) Apiary Inspection Programs  Most beekeeping regions of the world have apiary inspectors, who are responsible for inspecting bees for infectious diseases  Inspectors do not look at every beehive  Even the best-funded programs cannot look at the bee colonies of every beekeeper in the area  Some states have disease laws but lack funding to enforce and perform colony inspection  In much of the world, apiary inspectors are veterinarians  In the US inspectors are often biologists and technicians w some beekeeping experience  The only federal bee law in the US forbids importing bees or bee germplasm  Apiary inspectors look in colonies for symptoms of disease, and many have labs to confirm disease/ mites o Operate under state/ local laws that permit right of entry to inspect colonies, prohibit keeping colonies w AFB disease, and most legislation has been modified to address mites  Only some states require destruction of AFB infested colonies, some treat w ETO  Some programs provide educational programs to train beekeepers to look for disease symptoms  May enforce apiary site location or honey house sanitation, but it’s usually a healthy department  Certify bees and equipment as free of infectious disease for interstate transportation  Most agency inspectors concentrate on larger beekeepers  Dogs can be used to detect AFB in empty equipment of during winter (stinging risk w active bees) Downloaded by Wallace Spataro ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46526011 Parasitic Mites Reading pages 309-323  Mites are 8-legged arthropods in the class Arachnida, which also includes spiders and scorpions  Over 40 different mite species have been found in hives, pollen, and honey bees but very few are harmful  Some parasitic mites, mainly varroa and tracheal mites, have very a negative impact on NA beekeeping and have changed management practices o Tropilaelaps parasitic mite is only found in Asia  1/3 of all colonies in the USA & Canada are lost every year, many of which are linked to mite infestations, esp. varroa  Surviving mite-weakened colonies collect less nectar and are inefficient pollinators  Surveying and sampling programs attempt to detect accidental introduction of pests into the US bee population, and document bee health and tracheal and varroa mite incidence  An Ontario study found that more than 80% of winter colony deaths were associated w varroa mite infestations  Varroa mites are extremely serious infesting mite species of bees in temperate areas o Relatively new to NA strains of A. mellifera, which is why they’re so damaging o Found during the 80s in the US and the 90s in Canada o Original host is the Asiatic bee A. cerana, probably for several centuries  Has had time to develop mechanisms of resistance to the mite (balanced relationship)  Only infest drone brood o Unfortunately for the western honey bee, the relatively recent contact has been devastating  European-race bees are less effective at removing mites from their hives o Varroa is a pest, feeding on hemolymph of adult and pupae, and a vector for bee diseases o The most significant deterrent to successful beekeeping  Mites were generally ignored until introduced to the US  Tracheal mite caused Isle of Wight disease in England before 1920  Discover of mites, esp. varroa, in the US led Canada to close its borders to packages of bees from the US  Tracheal mites first discovered in Texas, USA in 1984, which apparently spread from Mexico o Second population in Florida, likely from illegal queen bee import o Despite rapid regulatory actions, including killing infested colonies (depopulation) tracheal mites were subsequently determined too widespread for containment Mite-related disorders  PMS: parasitic mite syndrome o Different symptoms from CCD o At least some adult bees, dead or alive, remain in the dead colony o Colonies survive the winter and die in the spring; adults perish in the cluster, but the cluster is small  CCD: colony collapse disorder o Colonies die in fall or early spring w almost a total lack of adult bee bodies  In both symptoms, brood and stored honey and pollen are usually still present in the dead colony, which rules out starvation as the cause of death Varroa Mite  Varroa destructor is an ecto-parasitic mite (size of pinhead) causing condition Varroosis  The main parasitic problem for honey bee colonies worldwide Downloaded by Wallace Spataro ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46526011  Parasitize brood and adult bees (mainly pupae), affecting colony productivity and bee survivorship  More difficult to see on adults when burrowed btwn abdominal segments than on white pupae exoskeleton  Transmission: mites are spread by swarms, robbing and drifting bees, and exchange btwn colonies o Queens and workers may carry mites  Life cycle: o Adult varroa females reproduce in worker and drone brood cells o Prefer drone brood to reproduce bc the capping period is longer, allowing mite to produce more offspring o Mated female enters a larval cell containing a 5-day old larva shortly before capping and immerses herself in the larval food under the larva to avoid being removed by nurse bees  After the cell is capped, the female mite moves onto the larval body and begins feeding on the host’s haemolymph o Mite begins laying egg 60 hours after the cell is capped and lays up to 6 (male then female eggs) o Eggs hatch and pass thru several developmental stages (larva, protonymph, deutonymph and adult) o Adult male mates within the cell and dies bc it cannot feed itself (not parasitic!) o Phoretic females (mother & mature daughters) continue to feed and leave the cell when the bee emerges o Phoresy: females attach to passing bees, located by touch, heat and smell o Transferred thru contact btwn adult bees o Mites feed from the adult bee haemolymph by biting them at their intersegmental membranes  Puncture holes leaves host susceptible to infestations of other diseases o After a few days, the cycle is repeated o May be confused w wingless fly Bruala coeca w 6 legs and 3 body segments vs mite 8 legs & 2 segments  Symptoms: observed infesting brood and adult bees o Bees emerge from infested cells smaller, deformed, and sometimes wing-less o Haemolymph loss, weigh loss, immune suppression, viral disease transmission, and shorter lifespan o Drones have less viable sperm for mating o Often associated w PMS bc they transmit viral and bacterial diseases to bees (DWV, PAS, AFB, etc.) o Infested, untreated colonies rarely survive the winter and are found dead the following spring  Diagnosis: by observing mites in the colony, or looking at brood and adult bee bodies o To determine severity, 2 tests are commonly used (sampling adults more useful) treat btwn 5-10%  Ether-roll: place 300-600 bees into a quart jar, spray them w ether-based starter fluid (used to start vehicles in cold weather), close jar, shake (10-15s) and roll, and if present, mites are dislodged from bees bodies and stick to jar walls  Sticky boards: screened trays containing a sticky paper sheet, placed on the bottom boards of hives to monitor mite fall (multiply mites by 50); 50 accetable  Recommended to monitor colonies in April and August and treat those w more than 6-12 mites falling/ day respectively (economic threshold levels) o Capping scratcher: uncap and pull pupa from cells, easiest by impaling and put on light surface to count o Soapy water/ alcohol: w 300 adult bees in jar, shake, put thru #4-8 mesh then 50-mesh screens o Sugar shake: 300 adult bees in jar, lid is 8 mesh, add sugar and shake jar (unlike other, doesn’t kill bees)  Control: possible if diagnosed in July/ early August o Chemical miticides: aimed to target mites without causing harm to host or contaminating hive o Synthetic acaricides: fluvalinate/ Apistan, amitraz/ Apivar, coumaphos/ CheckMite  Apistan not toxic to honeybees when correctly used, due to rapid detox by cytochrome P450 m-o-  Avipar based on Apistan but exhibits serious side effects o Eventually varroa mites w their high repro rate developed resistance to miticide chemicals o Natural acaricides: formic acid/ Mite Away, thymol/ Thymovar/ Apiguard, Oxalic acid (over the counter)  Formic acid unique biostrip (sugar incorporated) does not require removal and can be used w honey present (organic approved), but may shorten adult lifespan and brood loss  Oxalic acid: allowed in Canada and Europe, mixed w sugar water or used as fumigant  Direct contact required, but deadly for brood Downloaded by Wallace Spataro ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46526011  HopGuard, derivative of hops beta acids (beer br-product) that kills mites on adults but does not penetrated capped cells (strip)  Acetic acid (vinegar 5%) conc probably too low to be effective  Essential oils: Pennyroyal, tea tree, patchouli, various mints and wintergreen have been tested & utilized, but thymol and lemongrass are used the most  Thymol is the main ingredient in slow-release gel Apiguard or Api-Life Var  Essential oils cause brood removal and increased queen mortality o Heavy reliance on chemical treatment may contribute to higher queen losses and shorter lifespan o Some strains of bees show some degree of natural resistance to the mite and can be used too  Hygienic and grooming behaviour play a major role in resistance o Strains are not resistant enough to completely discard chemical treatment o Food additives/ stimulants like HBH (Honey-B-Healthy) uses spearmint and lemongrass essential oils in sugar syrup, and seems to increase acceptance and keep feeders mold/ mildew free  May be used instead of smoke for opening hive (spray) Tracheal Mite  Honey bee tracheal mite (HBTM) Acarapis woodi, a microscopic mite than lives inside bee tracheas o Acariosis/ Acarine disease o Other 2 Acarapis species occur externally (bee exoskeleton) and are not considered harmful  Transmission: similar to varroa mites o Physical contact btwn bees favours transfer  Life cycle Downloaded by Wallace Spataro ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46526011 o Newly emerged female mites exit the tracheal tube of the adult bee host and crawl onto body hairs, where it quests for a newly emerged drone or worker bee under 3 DOA (preferred host), maybe queen o Female mites enter the pro-thoracic trachea of young worker bees (