Comparative Literature Theory and Practice 2023/2024 PDF

Comparative Literature Theory and Practice ‫ﺍﺳﻤﺎﺀ ﺭﺟﺐ ﻣﺘﻮﻟﻰ ﺳﻠﻴﻢ‬ A Course for University Students 2023/2024 2023/2024 2023/2024 Compiled and edited by...

Comparative Literature Theory and Practice ‫ﺍﺳﻤﺎﺀ ﺭﺟﺐ ﻣﺘﻮﻟﻰ ﺳﻠﻴﻢ‬ A Course for University Students 2023/2024 2023/2024 2023/2024 Compiled and edited by Dr. Hala Shalaby 2024/2025 1 ‫ﺍﺳﻤﺎﺀ ﺭﺟﺐ ﻣﺘﻮﻟﻰ ﺳﻠﻴﻢ‬ Part One 2023/2024 Theoretical Background to 2023/2024 2023/2024 Comparative Literature 2  The Concept of Comparative Literature Introduction: Etymologically, the term comparative literature denotes ‫ﺍﺳﻤﺎﺀ ﺭﺟﺐ ﻣﺘﻮﻟﻰ ﺳﻠﻴﻢ‬ any literary work or works when compared with any other literary work or works. Hence, comparative literature is the study of inter-relationship between any two or more than two significant literary works or literatures. It is essential that while making comparative study we must take the sources, themes, 2023/2024 2023/2024 2023/2024 myths, forms, artistic strategies, social and religious movements and trends into consideration. The comparatist with his critical approach and investigations will find out, the similarities and dissimilarities among various works that he has undertaken for the purpose of comparison and justification lies in the fact that his approach must be unbiased and unprejudiced to reach the ultimate truth. It is only his earnest and sincere approach which will bring forth the bare truth or natural results and this really is the purpose of comparative study. 3  Comparative Literature is an interdisciplinary field. It inspires the desire of the scholars to study literature beyond National boundaries. They have to study literature across National borders, across different periods, languages, genres. In ‫ﺍﺳﻤﺎﺀ ﺭﺟﺐ ﻣﺘﻮﻟﻰ ﺳﻠﻴﻢ‬ this respect, Nirmala Jain states: Comparative Literature as a discipline implies transcending the frontiers of single languages and National Literatures. For Comparatist, any literature is basically a 2023/2024 literature, which has to2023/2024 be studied with reference to other 2023/2024 literatures, generally on a bi-or multilingual or national basis. (Nirmala Jain 79) The scholars of Comparative Literature try to bring out the relationship between literature and other arts like music, painting, dance and film. They have to compare the disciplines like literature and psychology, science, history, sociology, architecture, politics, etc. Comparative Literature integrates 4  literary experience with other cultural phenomena such as historical change, philosophical concepts and social movements. Historically, the term ‘Comparative Literature’ was coined by the famous Victorian poet and literary critic Matthew Arnold. ‫ﺍﺳﻤﺎﺀ ﺭﺟﺐ ﻣﺘﻮﻟﻰ ﺳﻠﻴﻢ‬ He used the term to refer to comparing literary works across languages and across cultures. The term “Comparative Literature” actually refers to the formal comparison to literature or movements, figures and works. Since its emergence in 20th century France, Comparative 2023/2024 Literature has gone 2023/2024 2023/2024 worldwide. After World War II, Comparative Literature developed quickly as a discipline particularly in US and Germany, as well as across Europe. While Comparative Literature may have initially focused on the relationship between different national literatures, historical development such as European expansion, the collapse of the Soviet Union and the increasing worldwide mobility added a new significance. --------&&-------- 5  The Definition of Comparative Literature: In his book Comparative Literature: Method and Perspective (1961), Henry Remak (1916-2009) defined Comparative Literature as ‫ﺍﺳﻤﺎﺀ ﺭﺟﺐ ﻣﺘﻮﻟﻰ ﺳﻠﻴﻢ‬ the study of literature beyond the confines of one particular country, and the study of the relationships between literature on one hand and other areas of knowledge and belief, such as the arts (e.g. painting, sculpture, 2023/2024 2023/2024 2023/2024 architecture, music), philosophy, history, the social sciences, (e.g. politics, economics, sociology), the sciences, religion, etc., on the other. In brief it is the comparison of one literature with another or others, and the comparison of literature with other spheres of human expression (7). In its simplest form it is "the study of the literatures of two or more groups differing in cultural background and, usually in 6  language, concentrating on their relationships to and influences upon each other" (). Bijay Kumar Dass also gives a very simple vivid and understandable definition of comparative literature: ‫ﺍﺳﻤﺎﺀ ﺭﺟﺐ ﻣﺘﻮﻟﻰ ﺳﻠﻴﻢ‬ The simple way to define comparative literature is to say that it is a comparison between the two literatures. Comparative literature analyses the similarities and dissimilarities and parallels between two literatures. It 2023/2024 2023/2024 2023/2024 further studies themes, modes, conventions and use of folk tales, myths in two different literatures or even more (3). Comparative Literature looks at literature from a cosmopolitan and international perspective with literary creation and experience. It is the amalgamation of literatures in their different languages. It links the present with past. This discipline does not have any pattern or system. The method involves a mixture of various aspects like description, characterization, interpretation, narration, explanation, evaluation along with 7  comparison. Comparison includes not only historical context but also even unrelated ones. In fact, Comparative Literature enables students to study a generous range of literary works belonging to several national ‫ﺍﺳﻤﺎﺀ ﺭﺟﺐ ﻣﺘﻮﻟﻰ ﺳﻠﻴﻢ‬ literatures that interest them. In this sense, according to Nelson Lowry (1924-1994), as stated in his book Poetic Configurations (1992), Comparative Literature can be described as "the whole study of the whole of literature as far as one’s mind and life can stretch" (6). Accordingly, Students 2023/2024 2023/2024 are encouraged to2023/2024 read widely from different literatures and to develop a focused critical understanding of important and cultural questions. Through study of a range of materials from several literatures, the students gain an understanding of individual authors, influences, literary movements, forms, and genres in a comparative critical context. They are also exposed to a wide range of individual emphases in literature and culture, periods, genres, history, criticism, and theory. 8  The Scope / Value / Objective of Comparative Literature: As a discipline Comparative Literature requires exceptional linguistic ability, theoretical knowledge and high intellectual caliber. It is a natural site that explores the boundaries ‫ﺍﺳﻤﺎﺀ ﺭﺟﺐ ﻣﺘﻮﻟﻰ ﺳﻠﻴﻢ‬ of modern language and literary studies. Comparative Literature seeks to bridge the distances between languages, and analyzes how cultures are different from one another. In order to see beyond social and linguistic horizons, 2023/2024 2023/2024 2023/2024 it studies literary works from different societies and eras. It also looks at juxtapositions between literature and other arts or disciplines. It is the only discipline that routinely crosses borders, studies what has come to be called the construction of “the Other” in all its guises, and is concerned with both literary and social relations between societies. Some scholars describe Comparative Literature as a ‘Branch of literary history’ and a study of spiritual international relations, as if focuses on the idea that the writers of diverse 9  literature influence others and their works. Anna Saitta Revignas describes it as a “modern science which centers on research into the problems connected with the influences exercised reciprocally by various literature”. Sandra Bermann states that it ‫ﺍﺳﻤﺎﺀ ﺭﺟﺐ ﻣﺘﻮﻟﻰ ﺳﻠﻴﻢ‬ “juxtaposes literary texts from different languages and cultures. It connects, say, a poem with dance, a film with the novel, photography with the essay”. Thus, comparatists may study the interaction between literature and other arts like music, painting, sculpture and architecture. they also observe the impact of 2023/2024 2023/2024 2023/2024 different schools of thought on literature. Taken broadly, comparative literature is a comprehensive term. Its scope encompasses the totality of human experiences into its embrace, and thus all internal human relationships among the various parts of the world are realized, through the critical approach to literatures under comparative study. It helps to vanish narrow national and international boundaries, and in place of that universality of human relationships emerges out. 10  The scope of Comparative Literature has always been an effective way of deepening and broadening one’s knowledge and horizons about the similarities and dissimilarities. The main objective of Comparative Literature is essentially the study of ‫ﺍﺳﻤﺎﺀ ﺭﺟﺐ ﻣﺘﻮﻟﻰ ﺳﻠﻴﻢ‬ diverse literature in their relations with one another. It enhances the critical thinking of the scholars and helps them to critically evaluate the literary texts, with a view to underlining the elements of unity in diversity. It analyses the similarities, dissimilarities and parallels between two literatures. It covers 2023/2024 2023/2024 2023/2024 influence, analogy, thematology, genre studies, translations, and ideas. Comparative Literature helps scholars gain an understanding of individual authors, influences, literary movements, forms, and genres in a comparative critical context. It helps them to study themes, modes, conventions and the use of folktales, myths in two different literatures or even more. They are also exposed to a wide range of individual emphases in 11  literature and culture, periods, genres, history, criticism, and theory. Thus, the term Comparative Literature includes comparative study of regional literatures, national literatures, ‫ﺍﺳﻤﺎﺀ ﺭﺟﺐ ﻣﺘﻮﻟﻰ ﺳﻠﻴﻢ‬ and international literatures. It is flexible enough to allow for the study of diverse fields and cultures, such as English and American culture; French and Francophone culture; Spanish, Latin and South American culture; German, Italian, Scandinavian, Chinese, Japanese, 2023/2024 2023/2024 Arabic, and modern 2023/2024 Greek culture; classics of the ancient world and their influence on later periods, etc. --------&&-------- The Major Aspects of Comparative Literature: The following are the major aspects of comparative literature: (1) Influence study examines how one literature is influenced by the other. 12  (2) Analogy studies the parallels between writers and works. (3) Thematology is the study of themes or motifs. (4) Reception study aims at measuring the response to a writer’s works abroad. ‫ﺍﺳﻤﺎﺀ ﺭﺟﺐ ﻣﺘﻮﻟﻰ ﺳﻠﻴﻢ‬ (5) Translation is an important tool for a translator. (6) Genre studies analyze the various literary forms involved in comparative study. (7) Movements and Trends. (8) Literature and other arts. 2023/2024 2023/2024 2023/2024 (9) Literature and Philosophy, Sociology and Psychology. --------&&-------- Tasks Practiced by Comparatists: As a student engaged in the practice of comparative literature, you will be asked to do a number of different things which reflect the complexities behind the concept of Comparative Literature. 1. You will be asked to familiarize yourself with literature from at least two different national traditions, studied in their original 13  languages. In its most obvious sense, Comparative Literature might be seen to start here. By studying different literary traditions, you will begin to be able to imagine what might constitute differences or similarities between those literatures. ‫ﺍﺳﻤﺎﺀ ﺭﺟﺐ ﻣﺘﻮﻟﻰ ﺳﻠﻴﻢ‬ 2. You will be asked to think about literature not only from differing national traditions, but from widely separated historical periods as well. Thus, Comparative Literature might also involve imagining what historical differences in the conception of literature teach us about its own 2023/2024 nature or its function. 2023/2024 2023/2024 3. You will be asked to think about what the verb compare means when applied to a specific group of authors or texts from different literatures. What do you compare, when you compare authors, or literature, or specific works of literature? What theoretical problems do various acts of comparison raise? 4. You will be asked to think theoretically about the idea of literature itself, about, for example, some of the following questions. How and why is literature divided into different 14  genres or different periods? How is literature situated within a given society? How is literature different from other domains such as philosophy or psychoanalysis or politics? Students interested in literary theory will find much in the study of ‫ﺍﺳﻤﺎﺀ ﺭﺟﺐ ﻣﺘﻮﻟﻰ ﺳﻠﻴﻢ‬ comparative literature to interest them, for example the challenge of confronting Western literary theory with previously unexplored non-Western literatures. --------&&-------- What is to be compared while comparing literature and art? 2023/2024 2023/2024 2023/2024 The following six things can be compared: (1) Theme (2) Form (3) Style (4) Technique (5) Genre (6) Time spirit. --------&&-------- 15  The French and American Schools of Comparative Literature Introduction: ‫ﺍﺳﻤﺎﺀ ﺭﺟﺐ ﻣﺘﻮﻟﻰ ﺳﻠﻴﻢ‬ In the West two major schools of comparative literature gained prominence. They are the French school and the American school. The French school is also called influence studies. It sets conditions on both the studied 2023/2024 literary texts on the 2023/2024 2023/2024 one hand as well as on the relationship of influence between them on the other hand. It is also obsessed with terminology and makes distinction between influence, reception, borrowing and imitation. While the American school is called parallel studies or comparative art studies. Many scholars of comparative literature consider the American school to be a development of the French school. Both schools aim to find homogeneity of the objects being compared. 16  The emergence of Comparative Literature as an institutionalized discipline can be traced to Hutcheson Macaulay Posnett, a lawyer who became professor of classics and English literature at the University of Auckland, in the late nineteenth ‫ﺍﺳﻤﺎﺀ ﺭﺟﺐ ﻣﺘﻮﻟﻰ ﺳﻠﻴﻢ‬ century. In 1886, Posnett published a book entitled Comparative Literature. Posnett envisioned and promoted Comparative Literature as a social science, which might enable the recognition and exploration of social and cultural differences and how different social and cultural structures produce different 2023/2024 2023/2024 2023/2024 literatures. While Posnett’s book encouraged the establishment of chairs in Comparative Literature at leading universities, it is only latterly that comparative literature might be said to have entered mainstream academic life, although many academics have been practicing the discipline throughout their careers. Comparative Literature, in its early stages, mostly examined the exchanges and the links between the dominant 17  European literatures. Then, in the aftermath of World War I, literary studies became more committed to national cultures and occasionally civilizations, such as British, French and North- American cultures. Following World War II, Comparative ‫ﺍﺳﻤﺎﺀ ﺭﺟﺐ ﻣﺘﻮﻟﻰ ﺳﻠﻴﻢ‬ Literature went on to devote itself to the history of international literary relations, although these relations remained closely aligned with the Western literary canon. While comparatists in the post-war period prided themselves in being able to speak 2023/2024 2023/2024 several languages,2023/2024 there was a marked tendency to specialize in dominant European languages, which left comparative studies open to the accusation of maintaining a Eurocentric bias. Today these parameters have changed: the notion of a clearly defined and exclusive literary canon has been challenged and literature is less tightly bound to spatially-defined traditions. Now that we all live in a more global arena, and in an age of increasing cultural contact between different language cultures, the study of Comparative Literature is more relevant than ever. This is particularly the case in 21 st - 18  century Ireland, which has evolved into an ever more complex and diverse multicultural society. Detractors of Comparative Literature have pointed out that the discipline does not have a clear-cut identity, that it doesn’t ‫ﺍﺳﻤﺎﺀ ﺭﺟﺐ ﻣﺘﻮﻟﻰ ﺳﻠﻴﻢ‬ offer precise, agreed methodological parameters. They have also stated that comparative principles are constantly shifting, and that comparators spend more time discussing theory than literature itself. 2023/2024 2023/2024 2023/2024 Historically, it is true that Comparative Literature demonstrated a focus on European literatures and later on European and American literature, and thus the current criticism of the discipline's Eurocentrism makes sense to a point. At the same time, however, the discipline paid more attention to "Other" literatures than any of the national literatures. Comparative Literature has intrinsically a content and form which facilitate the cross-cultural and interdisciplinary study of 19  literature and it has a history that substantiated this content and form. Scholars of various countries have given birth to some schools of comparative studies of literature. The names of these ‫ﺍﺳﻤﺎﺀ ﺭﺟﺐ ﻣﺘﻮﻟﻰ ﺳﻠﻴﻢ‬ schools have been given after the names of these countries. They are the French school, the Russian school, the Canadian School, the American School etc. In the Contemporary period there are two more schools have been emerged: the Chinese schools and Indian schools. 2023/2024 2023/2024 2023/2024 --------&&-------- 20  The French School of Comparative Literature The French school particularly dominated the field of comparative literature from the beginning of the 20 th century until World War Two. ‫ﺍﺳﻤﺎﺀ ﺭﺟﺐ ﻣﺘﻮﻟﻰ ﺳﻠﻴﻢ‬ It meticulously traced the transmission of ideas and forms across literatures using scientific methods. It employed tools like source studies, textual analysis, and chronological comparisons to establish "lines of influence" 2023/2024 2023/2024 2023/2024 between works. It focused on influence and reception studies, using a positivist approach. It was characterized by an empiricist and positivist approach (giving primacy to factual evidence to prove the existence of a connection between Work A and Work B). Its scope was too narrow and relied heavily on factual evidence. 21  The French school defines comparative literature as a branch of literary study which traces the mutual relations between two nationally and linguistically different literatures or texts. They place a strong emphasis on geographical and linguistic ‫ﺍﺳﻤﺎﺀ ﺭﺟﺐ ﻣﺘﻮﻟﻰ ﺳﻠﻴﻢ‬ boundaries in the comparison. In the French school of comparative literature, the study of influences dominates. Comparatists of the French school distinguish between direct / indirect influence, literary / non-literary influence, positive / 2023/2024 2023/2024 2023/2024 passive influence. The school is also obsessed with terminology: (influence, reception, borrowing, and imitation) Scholars like Paul Van Tieghem examined works forensically, looking for evidence of ‘origins’ and ‘influences’ between works from different nations Tieghem (among other French scholars) adopted the binary approach to comparative literature. The French school was predominantly marked by its 'études binaires’. 22  Comparison should take place between two elements only. The French school adopts an author-centered approach to comparison. Therefore, oral, anonymous and folk literatures are excluded from the province of comparative literature. ‫ﺍﺳﻤﺎﺀ ﺭﺟﺐ ﻣﺘﻮﻟﻰ ﺳﻠﻴﻢ‬ --------&&-------- Influence There are many arguments surrounding the term 'influence’. One can define it simply as the movement (in a conscious or unconscious way) of an idea, a theme, an image, a literary 2023/2024 2023/2024 2023/2024 tradition or even a tone from one literary text into another. Some scholars further classify influence into distinct types: – Literary and non-literary Influence – Direct and indirect influence – Positive and passive influence --------&&-------- Literary and Non-literary Influence The concept of 'literary influence' originated in the type of comparative study that seeks to trace the mutual relation 23  between two (or more) literary works. This sort of study is the touchstone of the French comparative literature. A comparative study between Bernard Shaw's Pygmalion and that of Tawfiq Al-Hakeem, or between Arabic and Persian ‫ﺍﺳﻤﺎﺀ ﺭﺟﺐ ﻣﺘﻮﻟﻰ ﺳﻠﻴﻢ‬ poetry, for example, is a good example of 'literary influence‘. However, a comparative study between Rifa'a Al-Tahtawi and French culture is based on the principle of 'non-literary influence' (the influence of French culture on the works of Al- Tahtawi). 2023/2024 2023/2024 2023/2024 This type is ignored by the French school on the ground that the influenced writer ('receiver') does not absorb certain constituents of a literary work into his or her own work but rather some primary material (cultural) which he or she uses in a literary work. --------&&-------- Direct and Indirect Influence A direct influence between two literatures is marked when there is an actual contact between writers. 24  More specifically, a literary text can have no existence before its writer's reading of another writer's 'original' text or having direct contact with him/her. It is difficult, however, to prove this relation between ‫ﺍﺳﻤﺎﺀ ﺭﺟﺐ ﻣﺘﻮﻟﻰ ﺳﻠﻴﻢ‬ nationally different writers, especially when some writers do not mention (deliberately or unconsciously) their debt, if such exists, to certain foreign writers or texts. The comparatists interested in emphasizing the direct influence between different writers are obliged to obtain 2023/2024 2023/2024 2023/2024 documentary information verifying an actual relation between them, such as personal contacts or letters. By tracing direct influence, comparatists do not enrich their national literatures with new literary models as much as they accelerate a tendency towards a blind chauvinistic nationalism, where each critic attempts to manifest the superiority of his/her national literatures to foreign ones. In many cases influence can exist between two different writers, without there being any direct relation between them 25  because of the language barrier, but rather through specific intermediaries such as individuals, journals or periodicals of literary criticism, or societies of literature, and translations. If there is any influence of this sort, the French comparatists ‫ﺍﺳﻤﺎﺀ ﺭﺟﺐ ﻣﺘﻮﻟﻰ ﺳﻠﻴﻢ‬ take it to be indirect. --------&&-------- Positive and Passive Influence The reception of a foreign work in a nation does not necessarily mean that it is2023/2024 2023/2024 a good sign of' positive2023/2024 influence': this would require proof that the foreign work helped develop in another country a successful work within its national literature. In some cases, a country's reception of foreign works helps only in letting its people know more about other cultures, as reflected in such works. Some foreign works may have a passive influence upon a national writer, in that he may feel compelled to write in a 26  reaction to an affront to highly revered national figures in foreign literature. Example: Cleopatra, the ancient Egyptian queen, was portrayed in many western works as a seductress who won ‫ﺍﺳﻤﺎﺀ ﺭﺟﺐ ﻣﺘﻮﻟﻰ ﺳﻠﻴﻢ‬ victory to her country by seducing Anthony and other military leaders. Ahmad Shawqi, the renowned Egyptian author, responded by writing Masra’ Cleopatra. His portrayal of Cleopatra manifested her as a striking example of loyalty and self-sacrifice for the sake of her country's welfare and dignity. 2023/2024 2023/2024 2023/2024 --------&&-------- Reception Influence and reception are not unrelated; no influence can take place between foreign writers without the reception of a literary work outside its national borders. That is, reception can be taken as a step on the road to influence. The process of reception is not coincidental or mechanical but rather systematic, as it takes place only when the foreign 27  works bring in cultural and ideological modes that accord with or help evolve those of a nation. Example: Edward FitzGerald's English translation of Omar Khayyam's Rubaiyat would not be given so much attention in ‫ﺍﺳﻤﺎﺀ ﺭﺟﺐ ﻣﺘﻮﻟﻰ ﺳﻠﻴﻢ‬ the West unless it fulfilled a need for Khayyam's new trends of pessimism and mysticism. On the contrary, the Arabic translations of certain Greek works during the Renaissance were not celebrated much in the Arabic world, containing as they did social and religious 2023/2024 2023/2024 2023/2024 concepts that were inconsistent with its Islamic and Christian culture. --------&&-------- Binary Studies Early French scholarship focused on comparing two works or authors from different national traditions. Established lines of influence or thematic parallels between works. --------&&-------- 28  National Consciousness Comparative literature served as a platform to assert the cultural prestige and influence of French literature. Studying the impact of French authors on other literatures ‫ﺍﺳﻤﺎﺀ ﺭﺟﺐ ﻣﺘﻮﻟﻰ ﺳﻠﻴﻢ‬ demonstrated France's intellectual and artistic leadership. --------&&-------- Key Figures Ferdinand Brunetière: emphasized the role of national genius 2023/2024 and historical context in shaping 2023/2024 literary movements. 2023/2024 Gustave Lanson: championed close textual analysis and the identification of sources and influences. René Wellek: initially aligned with the French school, later embraced a more flexible and theoretical approach. --------&&-------- 29  The Study Felds of Comparative Literature According to the French School: Literary Schools and Genres Ideological Echoes ‫ﺍﺳﻤﺎﺀ ﺭﺟﺐ ﻣﺘﻮﻟﻰ ﺳﻠﻴﻢ‬ Image Echoes Verbal Echoes Human Models and Heroes --------&&-------- Literary Schools and Genres 2023/2024 2023/2024 2023/2024 From the 18th century until now, the world has witnessed the emergence of various literary schools or movements (Classicism, Romanticism, Realism, Naturalism, Symbolism, Expressionism, Surrealism, Modernism, Post-modernism) The principal literary genres: plays, poems, novels exist in literatures around the world. Comparatists base their studies on raising and answering a number of questions such as: 30  – What are the similarities and differences between two international literatures in using a specific school or genre? – Where and when did this school or genre first appear? And how did it find its way into other literatures? ‫ﺍﺳﻤﺎﺀ ﺭﺟﺐ ﻣﺘﻮﻟﻰ ﺳﻠﻴﻢ‬ – What was behind its change or evolution? Did the boundaries of language, place and time have anything to do with this? --------&&-------- Ideological Echoes The ideological history of a nation is generally formed by the 2023/2024 2023/2024 2023/2024 history of philosophy, religion, ethics, culture and politics. Literature harbors all kinds of ideas, which are viewed differently by different writers. Religious ideas in French literature, for example, are treated in various ways: some writers defend religion or certain doctrines, while others question them. Cálvin, Pascal, Rousseau and Montaigne are among the theological writers whose distinguished works have found their wide echoes outside the frontiers of France. 31  Some philosophical ideas are reflected in literature. A great deal of the philosophy of Hegeland Locke have found their way into many of the European literary works. Philosophical ideas are not the same in various literary forms, ‫ﺍﺳﻤﺎﺀ ﺭﺟﺐ ﻣﺘﻮﻟﻰ ﺳﻠﻴﻢ‬ but are modified in a way that serves the writer's literary goal. German Existentialism, for instance, would not have gained popularity in France, if Sartre had not prepared the French public's taste with his novels and plays. Voltaire's imitation of Pope's view of man's dual nature, or 2023/2024 2023/2024 2023/2024 mysticism in Arabic and Persian literature, or ‘existentialism’ in German and French literature, for example, all are proper provinces for comparative literature studies. --------&&-------- Image Echoes The treatise on image in comparative literature has two main points of departure: – First, a country's image in a foreign writer's work (e.g., Twain's portrayal of Egypt, along with some other Arab 32  countries, in The Innocents Abroad or Voltaire's image of the English) or literature (Spain in Arabic literature or Germany in French literature). – Second, the image of a certain character or of an object ‫ﺍﺳﻤﺎﺀ ﺭﺟﺐ ﻣﺘﻮﻟﻰ ﺳﻠﻴﻢ‬ (women in Arabic and Persian literature, or nature in English and French literature). --------&&-------- Verbal Echoes The focus is on the ‘give’ and ‘take’ between languages. 2023/2024 2023/2024 2023/2024 Foreign words go beyond being mere sources of enrichment for the legacy of the receiving language; they become indicative of definite social and cultural values with many connotations. Languages, despite their variation, are the cornerstones of cultural and social reciprocity between nations. - Aramaic Words in Arabic language - A Glossary of Spanish and Portuguese words derived from Arabic language 33  The Canon of Avicenna (al-Qānūn fī al-Ṭibb), a literary medical book, has always been a primary source for 'practitioners' of medicine in different parts of the world, and of which many of the terms have been adopted by various ‫ﺍﺳﻤﺎﺀ ﺭﺟﺐ ﻣﺘﻮﻟﻰ ﺳﻠﻴﻢ‬ foreign languages. Doing such studies is not easy, for verbal echoes study demands, besides vast knowledge of different international cultures, traditions, politics and histories, a great ability of testing these within certain linguistic contexts in two or more 2023/2024 2023/2024 2023/2024 international literary texts, with a view to deciding the kind of historical relations between them. --------&&-------- Human Models and Heroes Certain characters and heroes are used in eastern and western literatures There are characters attributed to ancient myths such as: Pygmalion (as in Shaw's Pygmalion, Ovid's Les 34  Metamorphosis and John Marston's The Metamorphoses of Pygmalion's Image). Religion has provided all literatures with such figures as: Noah, Joseph, Moses, Cain, Abel and the devil. (The devil ‫ﺍﺳﻤﺎﺀ ﺭﺟﺐ ﻣﺘﻮﻟﻰ ﺳﻠﻴﻢ‬ features in John Milton’s Paradise Lost, Victor Hugo’s Fall of the Devil, and M. Lermontov's dramatic poem "The Devil”. Some characters are taken from popular myths, such as: Alaa Eddin and Shahrazad in The Arabian Nights. Don Juan is another example. 2023/2024 2023/2024 2023/2024 Other characters are adopted by western and eastern writers from history (like Alexander, Cleopatra, Arthur, Julius Caesar, etc.) All the aforementioned types of characters vary from one literary text to the other. For example, Moliere's Don Juan is made to be a social satirist and a benevolent man altogether; Byron assigns Don Juan to convey his own philosophy: namely, detesting the haughtiness of society, its rigid and arbitrary traditions and calling for free 35  love - a sacred love. In this Don Juan appears as a social victim and rebel. Some characters, however, do not deviate from their original outlines. Shahrazad, for example, figures in Arabic and ‫ﺍﺳﻤﺎﺀ ﺭﺟﺐ ﻣﺘﻮﻟﻰ ﺳﻠﻴﻢ‬ western literatures as a symbol of the heart's triumph over mind. --------&&-------- The Drawbacks of the French School The French school is deemed by many scholars to have 2023/2024 2023/2024 2023/2024 reached a dead end due to a number of issues. First, French theorists failed to define the terminology and methodology of comparative literature. French theorists were obsessed with external impacts of the world on literary works (causality) rather than internal aesthetic properties of texts. They were obsessed with the link of causality; i.e. more investigations were made outside the texts instead of dealing with the texts themselves. 36  Third, they examined literatures across linguistic barriers, rather than cultural ones. So, the focus of comparative literature from a French point of view is the comparison of two works written in two different ‫ﺍﺳﻤﺎﺀ ﺭﺟﺐ ﻣﺘﻮﻟﻰ ﺳﻠﻴﻢ‬ languages, but not the works of two writers writing in English even if they belong to two different cultures. A study of Beowulf and Paradise Lost is not acceptable, because although the former is in Anglo-Saxon, technically Anglo- Saxon is an early variant of modern English, so part of the 2023/2024 2023/2024 2023/2024 same literary system. Finally, it can be claimed that the French School lost its track and failed to meet the purposes it has set for itself at the beginning mainly when it comes to defeating nationalism. Instead of eliminating it, it has accentuated it. --------&&-------- 37  The American School of Comparative Literature Appeared in the second half of the 20th century, The American school came as a reaction against the French school. The American school set to avoid the chauvinistic nationalism ‫ﺍﺳﻤﺎﺀ ﺭﺟﺐ ﻣﺘﻮﻟﻰ ﺳﻠﻴﻢ‬ that marked the French school. Its main aim was to depoliticize comparative literature by going beyond the linguistic and ‘political boundaries’ of literary texts. In other words, it stressed the ‘depoliticization’ of comparative study. It is mainly based on universalism and interdisciplinarity. 2023/2024 2023/2024 2023/2024 It was more closely aligned with the original internationalist visions of Goethe and H. M. Posnett looking for examples of universal human “truths” based on the literary archetypes that appeared throughout literatures from all times and places. Despite difference in language and culture, all nations have certain things in common. It has mainly two fields of study: Parallelism and intertextuality. 38  Interdisciplinarity One of the founding fathers of the American school, Henry Remak, states that: Comparative Literature is the study of literature beyond the ‫ﺍﺳﻤﺎﺀ ﺭﺟﺐ ﻣﺘﻮﻟﻰ ﺳﻠﻴﻢ‬ confines of one particular country, and the study of the relationships between literature on the one hand, and other areas of knowledge and belief such as the arts [e.g. painting, sculpture, architecture, music], philosophy, history, the social sciences [e.g. politics, economics, sociology], the 2023/2024 2023/2024 2023/2024 sciences, religion, etc., on the other. Disregarding the distinctions used by the French school, the American comparatists fastened their attention on constructing a model of an ‘interdisciplinary work’. Bassnett states that: “the American perspective on comparative literature was based from the start on ideas of interdisciplinarity and universalism.” 39  This perspective threw over another basic principle of the French School, namely binary study, in regarding that the study of affinities and differences between two international literatures was just one angle of the subject* ‫ﺍﺳﻤﺎﺀ ﺭﺟﺐ ﻣﺘﻮﻟﻰ ﺳﻠﻴﻢ‬ --------&&-------- Parallelism and Intertextuality The American school paid no attention to the concept of influence in comparative literature as it was embraced by the French school; it replaced 2023/2024 2023/2024 2023/2024 it with concepts of ‘parallelism’ and ‘intertextuality’. It does not give importance to the link of causality. It gives no importance to influence. There is a possibility of dealing with literary texts not being in contact of whatsoever kind but having similar contexts or realities. If influence exists between literary texts, the importance does not lie in the influence itself but rather in the context. If the context does not allow for influence to be effective, influence will never take place in the first place. 40  The Parallelism Theory The ‘Parallel’ theory is derived from the idea of similarities in humanity’s social and historical evolution, which means harmony in the process of literary development. ‫ﺍﺳﻤﺎﺀ ﺭﺟﺐ ﻣﺘﻮﻟﻰ ﺳﻠﻴﻢ‬ Any study of parallelism claims that there are affinities between the literatures of different peoples whose social evolution is similar, regardless of whether or not there is any mutual influence or direct relation between them. Example: political and social relations during the feudal period 2023/2024 2023/2024 2023/2024 resulted in similar patterns of thought, art and literature in different parts of the world. The comparatist seeks to determine the bases and premises which underline common features between literatures and writers, or the affiliation of a phenomenon with a specific pattern. --------&&-------- The Intertextuality Theory 'Intertextuality' simply means the reference of a text to another. 41  It is the relation between two or more texts at a level which affects the way or ways of reading the new text (the 'intertext’, allowing into its own contexture implications, echoes or influences of other texts). ‫ﺍﺳﻤﺎﺀ ﺭﺟﺐ ﻣﺘﻮﻟﻰ ﺳﻠﻴﻢ‬ A deeper analysis shows the phenomenon to be a melting-pot into which designated components of the influencing text are intermixed with the content of the influenced text. Intertextuality Intertextuality is the reference 2023/2024 of a given text to another 2023/2024 2023/2024 text. New texts are superposed on old texts. New texts (Hypertexts) are always read under the light of old texts (Hypotexts). This is very much related to Roland Barthes’ theory of the text being a ‘network’ of quotations from various texts, cultures, disciplines...etc. The ways of reading or interpreting the literary text expand the province of ‘intertextuality’; each critic or individual reader takes a certain position, which is of course associated with his 42  or her culture, language and experience, from the text. This renders the text, over time, open to various interpretations. Literature is a continuous and an ongoing process of reworking and refashioning old texts. ‫ﺍﺳﻤﺎﺀ ﺭﺟﺐ ﻣﺘﻮﻟﻰ ﺳﻠﻴﻢ‬ Old texts turn into some sort of raw materials used for the creation of new ones. --------&&-------- 2023/2024 2023/2024 2023/2024 43  Works Cited Al-Khatib, Hussam. Horizons of Comparative Literature, 2nd ed. Damascus: Dār al-Fikr, 1999. Bermann, Sandra. “Working in the And Zone: Comparative ‫ﺍﺳﻤﺎﺀ ﺭﺟﺐ ﻣﺘﻮﻟﻰ ﺳﻠﻴﻢ‬ Literature and Translation,” Comparative Literature 61:(4) 2009. :432-446. "Comparative Literature." Dass, Bijay Kumar. Ed. Comparative Literature. New Delhi: 2023/2024 2023/2024 2023/2024 Atlantic Publishers and distributors, 2000. Dhawan, R.K. ed. Comparative Literature, New Delhi: Behari Publication, 1987. Hilal, Muhammad Ghunaymi. Comparative Literature. Cairo: Anglo-Egyptian Press, 1962. Lowry, Nelson. Poetic Configurations: Essays in Literary History and Criticism. Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1992. 44  Remak, Henry. Comparative Literature: Method and Perspective. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1961. Wellek, Renẻ. Theory of Literature. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1949. ‫ﺍﺳﻤﺎﺀ ﺭﺟﺐ ﻣﺘﻮﻟﻰ ﺳﻠﻴﻢ‬ --------&&-------- 2023/2024 2023/2024 2023/2024 45  Thought-Provoking Questions 1. What is comparative literature? / Define Comparative literature. 2. Write on the Scope / Value / Objective and the major ‫ﺍﺳﻤﺎﺀ ﺭﺟﺐ ﻣﺘﻮﻟﻰ ﺳﻠﻴﻢ‬ aspects of Comparative Literature. 3. What are the tasks performed by comparatists? 4. Write on the French School of Comparative Literature. 2023/2024 5. Write on forms of influence 2023/2024according to the French 2023/2024School of Comparative Literature. 6. Write on the Study Felds of Comparative Literature According to the French School. 7. Write on the drawbacks of the French School of Comparative Literature. 8. Write on the American School of Comparative Literature. 9. Write on Parallelism and Intertextuality. 46  Part Two ‫ﺍﺳﻤﺎﺀ ﺭﺟﺐ ﻣﺘﻮﻟﻰ ﺳﻠﻴﻢ‬ The Myth of Pygmalion and Galatea 2023/2024 2023/2024 2023/2024 47  The Myth of Pygmalion and Galatea The myth of Pygmalion and Galatea is probably one of the most known stories in Greek Mythology. ‫ﺍﺳﻤﺎﺀ ﺭﺟﺐ ﻣﺘﻮﻟﻰ ﺳﻠﻴﻢ‬ The myth of Pygmalion and Galatea is also one of the most influential and inspiring ancient Greek myths, and became the main theme for theatrical plays, movies and artistic paintings. --------&&-------- Pygmalion the Sculptor: 2023/2024 2023/2024 2023/2024 Pygmalion was a talented Greek sculptor from Cyprus. After becoming disgusted by some local prostitutes, he lost all interest in women and avoided their company completely. Pygmalion saw women as flawed creatures and vowed never to waste any moment of his life with them. He dedicated himself to his work and soon created Galatea, a beautiful stature of a woman out of ivory. 48  Ironically, the masterpiece of his life was this statue of a woman. Perhaps he sought to correct in marble the flaws he saw in women of flesh and blood. --------&&-------- ‫ﺍﺳﻤﺎﺀ ﺭﺟﺐ ﻣﺘﻮﻟﻰ ﺳﻠﻴﻢ‬ Pygmalion’s Statue: Whatever the case, Pygmalion worked so long and with such inspiration on the statue of Galatea, that it became more beautiful than any woman that had ever lived or been carved in stone. 2023/2024 2023/2024 2023/2024 As he finished the statue’s features, they became exquisitely lovely, and he found himself applying the strokes of hammer and chisel with increasing affection. When his chisel finally stopped ringing, there stood before him a woman of such perfection that Pygmalion, who had professed his disdain of all females, fell deeply in love. 49  He would bring it gifts, caress it, kiss it and talk to it every day. He brought it gifts he thought women would enjoy, such as pretty seashells, beads, songbirds, baubles and flowers. He would dress the statue in fine clothing, and put rings on ‫ﺍﺳﻤﺎﺀ ﺭﺟﺐ ﻣﺘﻮﻟﻰ ﺳﻠﻴﻢ‬ her fingers, necklaces around her neck and even earrings. However, what irony that he who had scorned women should fall in love with a woman who could never love him in return! --------&&-------- 2023/2024 2023/2024 2023/2024 Pygmalion and Aphrodite: Such a passion could not go unnoticed by the goddess of love, Aphrodite. She took pity on the young man and, when Pygmalion went to her temple to sacrifice a bull, Aphrodite gave him a sign. As the offering burned on the temple, the flames shot up one, two, three times. Pygmalion went home, wondering what to make of the manifestation he had seen. When he entered his studio, however, 50  and saw the statue, all other thoughts were banished from his mind. He ran to his statue and embraced it. Did she seem warm to his touch, or was it just residual heat form the sunset that had warmed the stone? He kissed her. Did ‫ﺍﺳﻤﺎﺀ ﺭﺟﺐ ﻣﺘﻮﻟﻰ ﺳﻠﻴﻢ‬ the statue’s lips seem soft? He stood back and regarded her. Did there appear the glow of life from within the marble form? Was he imagining it? No. Aphrodite had given life to the statue, whose name was Galatea. 2023/2024 2023/2024 2023/2024 --------&&-------- Pygmalion and Galatea: Pygmalion’s mind oscillated between doubt and joy. Fearing he may be mistaken, again and again with a lover’s ardor he touches the object of his hopes. It was indeed alive! The veins when pressed yielded to the finger and again resumed their roundness. Slowly it dawned on Pygmalion that the animation of his sculpture was the result of his prayer to Goddess Aphrodite who 51  knew his desire. At last, the votary of Aphrodite found words to thank the goddess. Pygmalion humbled himself at the Goddess’ feet. Soon Pygmalion and Galatea were wed, and Pygmalion ‫ﺍﺳﻤﺎﺀ ﺭﺟﺐ ﻣﺘﻮﻟﻰ ﺳﻠﻴﻢ‬ never forgot to thank Aphrodite for the gift she had given him. Aphrodite blessed the nuptials she had formed, and this union between Pygmalion and Galatea produced a son named Paphos, from whom the city of Paphos in Cyprus (this 2023/2024 2023/2024 2023/2024 city was sacred to Aphrodite), received its name. Pygmalion and Galatea brought gifts to her temple throughout their life and Aphrodite blessed them with happiness and love in return. The unusual love that blossomed between Pygmalion and Galatea enthralls all. Falling in love with one’s creation and then getting the desired object as wife- perhaps this was destined for Pygmalion. 52  Even to this day, countless people and young lovers are mesmerized by this exceptional love that existed between two persons at a time when civilization was in its infancy. --------&&-------- ‫ﺍﺳﻤﺎﺀ ﺭﺟﺐ ﻣﺘﻮﻟﻰ ﺳﻠﻴﻢ‬ The Myth of Pygmalion and Galatea in Arts: The basic myth of Pygmalion and Galatea has been widely transmitted and re-presented in the arts through the centuries. A few centuries later Goethe calls 2023/2024 the statue Elise, based 2023/2024 upon the 2023/2024 variants in the story of Dido/Elissa. George Bernard Shaw wrote a play titled Pygmalion. In Shaw’s play, the girl is brought to life by two men in speech — the goal for their masterpiece is for her to marry and become a duchess. It has an interesting spin on the original story and has a subtle hint of feminism. 53  The story of Pygmalion is the subject of Jean-Philippe Rameau’s 1748 opera, Pigmalion. It was also the subject of Gaetano Donizetti’s first opera, Il Pigmalione. --------&&-------- ‫ﺍﺳﻤﺎﺀ ﺭﺟﺐ ﻣﺘﻮﻟﻰ ﺳﻠﻴﻢ‬ Thought-Provoking Questions 1. Write on the myth of Pygmalion and Galatea. 2. Mention some of literary works that are built on the myth 2023/2024 of Pygmalion and Galatea. 2023/2024 2023/2024 --------&&-------- 54 ‫ﺍﺳﻤﺎﺀ ﺭﺟﺐ ﻣﺘﻮﻟﻰ ﺳﻠﻴﻢ‬ Part Three A Study Guide to 2023/2024 2023/2024 2023/2024 Bernard Shaw's Pygmalion 55  Precursors to Pygmalion Shaw’s play, as its title indicates, owes much to previous sources, mostly mythology. Pygmalion was a character in the tenth book of Ovid’s Metamorphoses. A sculptor from Cyprus ‫ﺍﺳﻤﺎﺀ ﺭﺟﺐ ﻣﺘﻮﻟﻰ ﺳﻠﻴﻢ‬ who did not enjoy the company of women, the man Pygmalion created an idealized female form out of ivory and then fell in love with the statue. He began to bring it presents as he would a lover, and he prayed to Aphrodite—the goddess of love—to meet a woman like his statue. Instead, 2023/2024 Aphrodite brought his 2023/2024 statue to 2023/2024 life. Pygmalion named her Galatea, married her, and had a son named Paphos. This myth differs from Shaw’s interpretation in several regards. Most importantly, Eliza (as Galatea) was already a living person before Higgins (as Pygmalion) “created” her. Higgins certainly shapes Eliza’s demeanor, her voice, and the way she looks, but he does not fashion her out of marble. Higgins gives Eliza a new human life in the way that Aphrodite did, while 56  it was Eliza's father who "created" Eliza's material reality. Moreover (and quite rightly), Eliza is indignant when Higgins claims that her success at winning his bet is his own. When she realizes that she no longer fits into any stratum of society, Eliza ‫ﺍﺳﻤﺎﺀ ﺭﺟﺐ ﻣﺘﻮﻟﻰ ﺳﻠﻴﻢ‬ curses Higgins for “creating” her at all. The largest difference between the play and the myth is the ending. In Shaw’s play, the stand-in for Galatea does not choose to marry the stand-in for Pygmalion. In the prologue, Shaw explains that “Galatea never does quite like Pygmalion: His relation to her is too god-like to 2023/2024 2023/2024 2023/2024 be altogether agreeable.” In ancient myth, it was not so bad to have a relationship with a god, but this is not the kind of thing Eliza wants. Shaw’s Pygmalion has one other major source, the tale of King Cophetua. King Cophetua was an apocryphal monarch who was not interested in women until he met a beggar-woman. He fell in love with her and elevated her to be his queen. The Cophetua complex names an attraction to lower-class women, a tendency which Higgins exhibits in his interactions with Eliza. 57  (The broader rags-to-riches theme is common in Western literature; compare the film Pretty Woman.) Higgins assures Pickering that his students are “sacred,” because he has always found them so before. But he finds himself attracted to Eliza, ‫ﺍﺳﻤﺎﺀ ﺭﺟﺐ ﻣﺘﻮﻟﻰ ﺳﻠﻴﻢ‬ who is quite different from the millionaires he taught before. Part of this difference is in the power dynamic which is so central to Higgins’ relationship to Eliza. Like Pygmalion and King Cophetua, if he were to choose Eliza as his consort, he would be in a position of great power in the relationship. 2023/2024 2023/2024 2023/2024 --------&&-------- 58  Plot Structure Analysis of Bernard Shaw's Pygmalion Pygmalion is a primarily Shavian reworking of Ovid's Metamorphoses with undertones of Cinderella. Romance and satire dominate both the play's plot as well as style. Shaw takes ‫ﺍﺳﻤﺎﺀ ﺭﺟﺐ ﻣﺘﻮﻟﻰ ﺳﻠﻴﻢ‬ a strong central situation--the transformation of a common flower girl into a lady--and surrounds it with superficial trimmings. There is technical innovation in the plot structure since Shaw, under the influence of Ibsen, replaces the stock Victorian formula of exposition, 2023/2024 2023/2024 situation and unraveling 2023/2024 with exposition, situation and discussion. The plot thus has three distinct stages of development. In the first stage Professor Henry Higgins, who is an expert in phonetics, transforms a common flower girl into an artificial replica of a lady by teaching her how to speak correctly. Prior to this Eliza's life has been miserable. As a poor flower girl she coaxes money out of prospective customers and is thrilled when she suddenly receives a handful of coins that Higgins throws into 59  her basket. She lacks the capacity to express her feelings articulately and an indiscriminate sound of vowels "Ah - ah - ow - ow - oo" serves to connote a multitude of emotions ranging from pain, wonder, and fear to delight. However she is not ‫ﺍﺳﻤﺎﺀ ﺭﺟﺐ ﻣﺘﻮﻟﻰ ﺳﻠﻴﻢ‬ entirely depraved and is at least self-reliant enough to earn her own livelihood by selling flowers. In Act Two Eliza arrives at Higgins' laboratory at Wimpole Street and haughtily demands that Higgins teach her to speak correctly so that she can become a lady in a flower shop. This desire for financial security and 2023/2024 2023/2024 2023/2024 social respectability constitutes a step forward in her larger quest for self- realization. For Higgins Eliza is simply a phonetic experiment, a view that dehumanizes her and results in the creation of an artificial automaton-like replica of a lady. In the second stage of the play the audience encounters an Eliza who has become an artificial duchess. She is no longer a flower girl but is not quite a lady. During Mrs. Higgins' at-home she proceeds to deliver Lisson Grove gossip with an upper class accent. She is nothing more than a live doll and there is an 60  element of crudity in her parrot-like conversation. The mask of gentility that she wears only partially hides her low class background. Shaw demonstrates here that having fine clothes and the right accent are not enough to make a lady. The fact that ‫ﺍﺳﻤﺎﺀ ﺭﺟﺐ ﻣﺘﻮﻟﻰ ﺳﻠﻴﻢ‬ the Eynsford-Hills fail to see through her façade implies that they too do not possess true gentility. By the time that Eliza returns after her triumphant society appearance at the Ambassador's ball, she no longer exhibits this element of crudity. She has benefited from Higgins's lessons in achieving social poise and has acquired 2023/2024 2023/2024 2023/2024 the ability to articulate her thoughts and feelings. She has begun to think for herself and is capable of manipulating any situation to her advantage. The play enters into the third phase of development in Act Four. Eliza now encounters the great moment of truth and reality of her situation. Her education has created in her an intense dissatisfaction with the old way of life and she is not exactly pleased about the avenues open to her as a lady. She realizes that her social acquisitions do not enable her to fulfill her aspirations 61  or even earn a living. She becomes aware of the wide disparity between her desires and the inadequacy of the means for fulfilling them. She repudiates Higgins' suggestion that she could marry a wealthy husband and wryly comments that earlier "I sold ‫ﺍﺳﻤﺎﺀ ﺭﺟﺐ ﻣﺘﻮﻟﻰ ﺳﻠﻴﻢ‬ flowers, I didn't sell myself" while now that she has been made a lady, she isn't fit to sell anything. She has thrown away her mask and reveals a newfound maturity. She throws Higgins' slippers at him and thereby breaks free from a life of subjugation and dependence. Critics feel that at this point the play enters into 2023/2024 2023/2024 2023/2024 a period of calm and the main impetus of the action dissipates. Eliza's society appearance has been a tremendous success and after the climatic encounter between Higgins and Eliza in Act Four the dramatic tension disappears. Eliza runs away to Mrs. Higgins and the only issue left is the resolution of her relationship with Higgins. The readers have to agree that the main impetus of the action has disappeared since all the preceding acts had been gearing up for the crucial moment of Eliza's test. Now Alfred Doolittle's strategic second appearance 62  performs a resuscitating act for the play in its dying stage. Doolittle's transformation from a dustman to a gentleman also provides an ironic comment on Eliza's metamorphosis. After this brief spirit of energy the action returns to the ‫ﺍﺳﻤﺎﺀ ﺭﺟﺐ ﻣﺘﻮﻟﻰ ﺳﻠﻴﻢ‬ issue at hand - the relationship between Eliza and Higgins. Eliza has developed into a self-sufficient woman and has become a perfect match for Higgins. She has garnered the requisite strength of character and maturity of thought to face life courageously. Gentility has 2023/2024 2023/2024 become an integral aspect 2023/2024 of her personality. No longer afraid of Higgins, she treats him as an equal. She negates his role in her transformation and insists that it was the Colonel's generosity and courteous behavior, which truly made her a lady. She rejects Higgins' proposal that he, she and Pickering live together like old bachelor friends and astounds him by announcing that she will marry Freddy instead and support him by offering herself as an assistant to Nepommuck. Higgins, although hurt at Eliza's suggestion of assisting the detestable Nepommuck, is nevertheless happy that 63  Eliza is no longer a whining helpless creature but a tower of strength and a woman at last. The play concludes on an uncertain note and the readers do not know whether she might indeed marry Higgins. This reflects Shaw's inherent distaste for finality. ‫ﺍﺳﻤﺎﺀ ﺭﺟﺐ ﻣﺘﻮﻟﻰ ﺳﻠﻴﻢ‬ In the majority of his plays the issues and conflicts they deal with are never quite resolved and the audience is left wondering about what will happen after the curtain falls. However, Shaw realizing the importance of an ending does provide a resolution in the epilogue. 2023/2024 2023/2024 The drama lies neither 2023/2024 in the conflict, nor in the discussion or the exposition. The conflict itself arises over the issue of the resolution of the problem. Unless there is a resolution, there is no drama, for the action remains incomplete. Action always has to be completed either comically or tragically. Hence in the epilogue, Shaw resolves the issue by making Eliza marry Freddy Hill. It was typical of Shaw to have provided such an anti-romantic conclusion to the play. Many commentators accuse Shaw of deliberately twisting the natural end of Pygmalion merely to make the play unromantic. 64  But critics would do well to remember that the actual point of ending is not the issue of Eliza's marriage but her achievement of liberty. While throughout the play Higgins boasts of having transformed a common flower girl into a duchess, after Eliza's ‫ﺍﺳﻤﺎﺀ ﺭﺟﺐ ﻣﺘﻮﻟﻰ ﺳﻠﻴﻢ‬ climactic assertion of independence from his domination he remarks, "I said I'd make a woman of you; and I have." In this perspective the original ambiguous ending seems preferable to the neat resolution given in the epilogue. 2023/2024 --------&&-------- 2023/2024 2023/2024 65  A Short Summary of Shaw's Pygmalion In Covent Garden, the Eynsford Hills wait for a cab in the rain. When Freddy goes to hail one, he knocks Liza’s flowers out of her basket. She accepts money from Freddy’s mother, then ‫ﺍﺳﻤﺎﺀ ﺭﺟﺐ ﻣﺘﻮﻟﻰ ﺳﻠﻴﻢ‬ Colonel Pickering. A bystander warns her that a man is writing down what she is saying, and she confronts him, saying that she has done nothing wrong. Higgins amazes the crowd by imitating her accent and guessing where they all come from. Pickering and Higgins meet and agree to have dinner, and Higgins fills Liza’s 2023/2024 2023/2024 2023/2024 basket with money before he leaves. Liza leaves in a cab. The next day, Liza intrudes upon