Ancient Egypt & Africa PDF

EGYPT & AFRICA Pharaohs: - Were rulers/kings - Believed to embody gods - Buried in pyramids - In the old kingdom, the pharaohs were one of the only people who could make it to heaven/they were the only ones that could be mummified - They were the rulers and owners of the land...

EGYPT & AFRICA Pharaohs: - Were rulers/kings - Believed to embody gods - Buried in pyramids - In the old kingdom, the pharaohs were one of the only people who could make it to heaven/they were the only ones that could be mummified - They were the rulers and owners of the land - Ruled with the same kingship as sudanics before them - Old kingdom they were associated with Horus the sky god, New kingdom they were believed to be the sons of Amon (the sun god) and that a human sun was overseeing human affairs - And when they died they would go back be one with Amon again - They were dominant in the Old and New Kingdom as the commanding force hieroglyphics: - Ancient language - Importance: allows us to see into Egyptian religion, daily life, royalty, etc. - Pictographic - Also had demotic writing for common folk (hieratic) - Hieroglyphics were very hard to learn/master - Only scribes with much training wrote hieroglyphics - Not very practical for daily usage - Named hieroglyphics (holy inscriptions) by the greeks who were fascinated with them - Over 700 different characters New Kingdom: - Spread out responsibilities across the government - Expanded borders with military - Pharaohs started building temples, monuments, and temples, but not pyramids. This was because they wanted to advertise their might and control - Fell because of external pressure, specifically military inferiority - Allowed more people to be mummified Pyramids: …they were pyramids… - Symbolism - Square base with 4 equilateral triangles, representing order/harmony - death and rebirth - Base stands for body, side shows spiritual attempts, point for reaching the gods - Showed the high levels of coordination & effective government - Showed devotion to pharaohs & gods - Showed good engineering skills - Built by paid laborers Nile: - the longest river in the world  - Flows from from central africa northward to the mediterranean sea, flows north bc of the mountain range it was on - Three principal streams are: - The blue Nile - The Atbara - The white Nile - Flooded annually, but egyptians were able to predict it - Egyptians used it for trade by bring boats up and down the river - But the trade was not to other countries, especially the south, bc the nile had Cataracts that were very dangerous and hard to navigate - Had crocodiles - Agriculture dependent on this river Hatshepsut: - Female pharaoh - Ruled alongside her step-son because he was “too young” (boy king) - Went against patriarchal stereotypes - People tried erase her reign from existence once she died by carving away at her statues and tombs - To ease here people she had monuments commissioned of her with a beard traditionally worn by male pharaohs - She was a regent not a pharaoh so lowkey should have never been king - Actually ended up being a decent pharaoh though, having success in, - Trading - Military career - Called herself besties with a god Amon-Re: - God of sun, creation, fertility, aire - Father of the gods - Depicted with blue skin bc he died and came back from the dead - Equivalent to zeus - Originally two separate gods but then got pushed together by a cult that worshiped them! Osiris: - Egyptian god of underworld - Originally was god of vegetation - Was the mythological first king - Betrayed by Set(h), his brother - Tricked into getting into coffin - Killed by his brother bc he was chopped up like caesar - Isis, his wife, searched for his body parts to save him - Eventually restored as god of underworld - Judges souls passing through  - Also god of the nile Egyptian religion (main ideas), - People go to the afterlife after death and they were literal farmers for the rest of eternity - Your heart is judged based on past actions (by the use of an ostrich feather) - Gods were responsible for stuff related to nature and their everyday lives Bantu peoples - Were in west Africa - Migrated across pacific coast - Recorded things by song - Spoke bantu languages (over 500 of them) - Most influential people of sub saharan africa - Traded heavily - Lived in tribes - They were people who spoke Bantu languages. - The original bantu language was one of the multiple connected tongues in the niger-congo language family, which was widely spoken in west Africa. - They lived in an area mostly near the eastern part of modern Nigeria and the southern part of modern Cameroon.  Soil could not wield class due to climate change, this caused their downfall They had marketplaces, temples, public buildings They traded, traveled, and communicated between regions They traded pottery tools, decorative items, precious metals, gems, stones, copper, ivory, beads, cloths, and olive oil as well as other products They grew Wheat, Barley, chicken, cattle, sheep, goats, and cotton They made dyed cloth They lived in one room together if they were poor like tenants Rich people had multiple rooms, stories, and courtyards Everyone had equal bathrooms and they had sewer systems Richer people had wells and essentially irrigation systems Sanskrit ○ Language rig vedas were written in ○ Ancient language Indus Valley Gifted Harappan society Water/natural irrigation Agricultural surplus Population growth Villages to cities with specialized labor, trade, social distinctions, and religion River was like the Nile and acted the same way the Nile did by flooding every year and bringing agriculture to the society. The flooding of the indus river was very unpredictable Mohenjo Daro, walled city, and Harappa ○ Had distinctions of wealth Aryans Possibly from eurasian steppes Arrived in india from the north Settled between indus River tributaries Tall, fair skinned, etc. Conflicts with Dasa (waste), described as dark skinned and unskilled (not true) Conquered many lands nomadic/pastoral, spoke indo-european Warlike, patriarchal Councils Established small herding + agriculture communities Clashed w/ dravidians but also intermingled (culture blended) Aryan settlement in India, Established small herding + agriculture communities  Clashed w/ dravidians but also intermingled (culture blended) Nomadic and pastoral peoples Migrated over several centuries Hitler’s Aryans Aryans became “noble + Superior” Nazis used it for propaganda to paint themselves as “noble + superior” Caste System: - 4 levels - Brahmin - priests - Kshatriyas - warriors - Vaishyas - merchants - Sudras - laborers/peasants - Untouchables (added later, people without a caste) Pros Cons - Justifies the positions people are in - Was seens as a way to justify their place - Has a respect for all jobs - Was a way to silence people from - Acknowledges that all jobs/positions are complaining about their place needed - Hard to advance in society - Gave them something to live - Was misperceived and became more of a for/something to achieve social barrier (us vs. them) - Encouraged you to have good morals (10 commandments/hammurabi's code) ANCIENT CHINA (The rice emoji is there because there is a whole section on rice) Study Guide for more info: Ancient China Study Guide (compiled) Mandate of Heaven, ancestor veneration, Shang, Fu Hao, rice, Chinese characters Mandate of Heaven, ○ Ancient Chinese concept justifying the ruler's right to govern as granted by Heaven. ○ Ruler must be just. If not, the Mandate can be revoked, leading to their overthrow. ○ Used to legitimize the transfer of power between dynasties, especially from Shang to Zhou. Ancestor veneration/Filial piety, - expressed by the Chinese character 孝 (xiào), - central value in traditional Chinese culture, - emphasizing respect, obedience, and care for one's parents and elders. - It is based on principles of hierarchy, obligation, and the belief that children owe an eternal debt to their parents for giving them life and nurturing them. - Filial piety extends beyond the nuclear family - emphasizing the importance of respect and duty to ancestors and the entire family line, ○ following a hierarchical structure. It includes: obligations to patrilineal ancestors,  reinforcing a system in which family identity and lineage are vital, shaping the moral and social order of the family and society as a whole. entails a significant debt or burden, as children are expected to repay their parents' care by looking after them in old age and ensuring their happiness. This obligation is seen as lifelong and can never be fully repaid, Chinese family relations are primarily based on duty, role-division, and material care rather than emotional expressions like words or affection. Materialism in Chinese culture is often tied to providing for one's family as a way of showing love and responsibility family members are expected to fulfill their roles and provide for each other materially, reinforcing hierarchical obligations. Being unfilial in Chinese society can result in shame, loss of reputation, and social ostracism. Since reputation and family respect are central to social standing, failing to fulfill filial duties can negatively impact how one is treated by others, affecting personal relationships and social opportunities. The endurance of the Chinese family system and filial piety is due to its hierarchical structure, individuals who are initially powerless as children eventually gain authority over their own children and in-laws. This system allowed everyone to enjoy some degree of power and control, creating a cycle that reinforced itself through generations, supported by societal and cultural norms. Important Confucian value Peoples of China diligently tended the graves and memories of their ancestors. They believed that the spirits of their ancestors passed into another realm of existence. Much like the tombs of the Pharaohs, people buried material goods along with their dead. They hoped that their dead ancestors would watch over them and assist them. This was culturally important because it highlighted family relationships as well as important values for living peoples. Shang, A famous emperor was Wu Ding Earlier capital was Ao - Bronze Technology: The Shang Dynasty mastered bronze-making, and like lowkey monopolized the area, giving them superior weapons and tools, which allowed them to dominate militarily over rival tribes.  - Religious Authority: The Shang rulers were seen as intermediaries between the people and the gods, particularly through their use of oracle bones for divination, which helped solidify their power and control. - credited with the creation of one of the earliest forms of Chinese writing. This writing system, known as oracle bone script, was inscribed on animal bones and turtle shells, primarily used for divination and communicating with ancestors. The characters were pictographic, representing objects or concepts, and evolved into more complex forms over time. The development of this writing system during the Shang dynasty laid the foundation for the written Chinese language, influencing its structure and continuity through successive dynasties. The inscriptions discovered on oracle bones provide crucial insights into the culture, politics, and religious practices of the Shang period. - Rise was due to their great tech for the time - Horse drawn carriages - Bronze weaponry - Stuff listed above - Fall - Pressure from zhou/were taken over - Last shang king sucked, and was a gilgamesh before enkidu yk? - Lost the mandate of heaven The Zhou justified their overthrow of the Shang Dynasty by claiming that the Shang had lost the Mandate of Heaven due to their tyranny and misrule. The Zhou believed that Heaven had chosen them to replace the Shang and restore just governance. This concept of the Mandate of Heaven would become a central theme in legitimizing dynastic change in Chinese history. Fu Hao, ○ One of the only female military leaders (idk if it was super rare or not but it wasn’t common) ○ Favored consort of a Shang king, Wu Ding ○ Wielded a great deal of power ○ Led armies into battle, won a few ○ Like hatshepsut ○ Very elaborate tomb, lots of wealth and just the prestige she was held at ○ Owned land and was like the leader of her household - Lady Fu Hao’s tomb was discovered at the Yin ruins - Was filled with riches, including bronze artifacts, jade, and even human and animal sacrifices (These were found in many tombs. Not unusual.) - These tombs demonstrate the wealth and power of the Shang elite, as well as the belief in an afterlife where the items would accompany the dead.  - It shows the importance of royal women in Shang society, as Fu Hao was a military general and high priestess. Rice, A big thing within ancient chinese culture Relied heavily of yangtze river Southern china relied more on rice cultivation than northern china did Rice has much tradition Sustained china in the early periods Grows remarkably well in a subtropical climate (so china's area) Provides a lot of nutrition to feed a growing population More rice = more people Found a good and remarkable way to harvest rice Rice cultivation began in China around 8,200–13,500 years ago, in the Pearl River valley, contributing to early agricultural development. Archeological evidence indicates rice farming was established in the middle Yangtze and upper Huai river regions at least 8,000 years ago, which helped form the basis of ancient Chinese civilization. The spread of rice farming along rivers supported population growth, allowing settlements and societies to thrive. The abundance and nutritional value of rice contributed to feeding China's large population, which was critical for sustaining its cultural, economic, and social development over millennia. What are the benefits of rice? Adaptability: Rice grows well in subtropical, wet environments, making it ideal for large regions of China. Ease of cultivation and harvest: Rice is relatively easy to grow and harvest compared to other crops. High yield: It produces a bountiful crop, ensuring a steady and reliable food source. Nutritional value: Rice is calorie-dense and nutritious, providing essential sustenance for large populations. How might rice cultivation shape culture?  Agricultural economy: The ability to produce large quantities of rice supported population growth and economic stability, leading to the rise of powerful agricultural societies. Cultural rituals and festivals: Rice became central to food rituals, festivals, and ceremonies, reflecting its importance in daily life and culture. Societal structure: The reliance on rice farming likely shaped social organization, with communities and labor systems forming around rice cultivation. Rice farmers are more social and cool than wheat farmers! Environmental adaptation: Rice’s suitability for wet, subtropical climates led to the development of advanced irrigation techniques and agricultural innovations to maximize productivity, which contributed to China's technological advancement. Chinese Characters, - Characters are very similar to what they mean, like they look like what they mean (pictographic) - To write more complicated thoughts instead of just using pictographs they combined many of them together to make ideographs - Bc it was pictographic allowed/enabled many people to write - Overall has gone through tons of changes over the centuries but still there is some resemblance between them and modern words - Earliests locations are on oracle bones - Each character represented a word, evolved to the modern version EARLY AMERICAS & OCEANIA Study Guide for more info: Early Americas/Oceania Study Guide (combined) Settlement of the Americas, Old theories: ★ Waves of people came in over the years, not all migrating at once (new theory, contrasts to the old theory which thought they all came in together) ★ Original belief was that all the people crossed 12-15000 years ago through the bering land bridge following big game like mastodons, during the last ice age; they slowly migrated southward New theory: - A group who split from a Siberian/East Asian population from around 35,000 years ago, began arriving in Beringia by land or boat (>25,000 yrs ago) and came in several different waves through an ice-free passage. ★ Most scholars have now accepted that the new arrival was around 15,000 - 25,000 years ago Olmecs, ○ Ball game, ○ name translates to “rubber people”, ○ maize, ○ sacrifices, ○ led the way for other mesoamerican societies (religious beliefs, astrology/calendars, and art) ○ Why they had giant stone heads scattered around the civilization ○ Not much is known about them Teotihuacan, ○ Had pyramids of the sun and moon ○ May have been the largest of the mesoamerican cities ○ Name comes from the aztecs, original name is unknown Teotihuacan = birthplace of the god Aztecs founded the city long after the Teotihuacan peoples disappeared ○ Maize, squash, avocados, cactus ○ A prominent goddess was the goddess of spiders. ○ Was set up in grid form, divided the city into four corners, probably for religious reasons Had two main roads, the most prominent one was the street of the dead Very good city planners/builders Grid system ○ They had lots of immigrants Immigrants lived together in certain areas (ex. lots of jewish people in northbrook, lots of greeks in glenview) ○ Peaked between years 400 to 500 ○ No idea about their languages, nor why they disappeared, nor why they even built this city in the first place  ○ The palace of the moon is more on the northern side of the street of the dead ○ Connected culturally to alot of mexico ○ Central part of this city was burned, but no one knows why ○ After the burning most people left ○ Very religious city ○ Most likely the capital of some large state ○ Had very little military Maya lands, ○ Not great soil, had to build terraces to make it useable, ○ after using terraces, soil eventually became too infertile ○ This caused them to move down to the less fertile southern area ○ Mayans constantly grew/evolved their cities by just paving stucco over them adding rubble and making it bigger Maya religion, ○ Polytheistic! ○ It took three tries to make humans 1st, the gods made them out of mud, but they were to stupid to worship 2nd, then the gods made them out of woods, but they were also stupid, so they were believed to be what evolved into monkeys Then they made us out of corn ○ believed that humans were made from maize and water (corn dough) ○ Earth was a turtle, the celestial realm had the sun's path (kinda like Apollo), the underworld was called cenotes. ○ Bloodletting would keep the gods happy and content with what the humans had given them ○ They would lacerate and then decapitate their victims who were often prisoners of war. ○ High-ranking officials also bloodlett and would often cut themselves for the gods. ○ If the gods did not receive payment/sacrifice then the whole world would go out of whack and die ○ Popol Vuh had many religious teachings and myths - Thought there were 3 parts to the world: earth, celestial realm, underworld - They believed all gods has a good and bad side (benevolent and malevolent) - Gods were human like, not immortal - They were born, lived, and died - They did human like activities, like harvesting corn, participating in warfare, and more - Religion tied into astronomy and science. Predicted eclipses were often justified for by some godly occurrence - Mayans thought gods required sacrifice, this was the idea behind bloodletting - Bloodletting was thought to be able to satisfy gods so they could continue providing peace and prosperity on earth - Creation myth: separated sky and earth by tree. Gods created plants, then mud people, then wood people, then people made from corn dough. Macaw claimed to be the sun, and the hero twins shot it with darts. Won a ball game to resurrect dad. Maya Classic period, ○ Astrology Were very good with astrology and could predict eclipses and plan days/festivals on them Allowed for calendar creation Agricultural predictions Shadow clock Sun cycles Tied in with religious beliefs (horoscope-type things) ○ Calendars Calendar was actually very accurate to ones used today, 17 seconds off Had two overlapping calendars, one wa sacred and 260 days, other was normal and 365 days Very important because they were actually able to plan ahead and use astrology and calendars this figure out what days would be most beneficial for Harvest Declaring war on each other ○ art/architecture Ceremonial structures grouped around an open plaza Grand palaces - value royalty Used wood, jade, obsidian, earthenware, etched stone, bone, shells, stucco, and paint. Thousands of stone stelae/decorated elements with exquisite detail Used astrology to align buildings with the sun Lots of pyramids/temples for sacrifices and religious purpose Built from lime and concrete, bright colors Chichen Itza Shadow of a serpent, changes as the sun rises and sets Ball games north and south to represent underworld and celestial (sacred) ○ Science/engineering Glue and glitter paint were made, rubber products and obsidian tools Terraces- allowed for increased agricultural productivity and efficient use of the land Trapped silt Population growth and specialization of labor led to the advancement of entire society Elaborate looms for weaving Traded with other city-states Irrigation- had advanced ways of irrigation for crops ○ Mathematics  Led to astronomical and calendrial advancements Predict when eclipses were, allowed them to accurately know how long a solar year was (only 17 secs off) Let them keep track of seasons and important events Utilized the number zero - allowed for more mathematical discoveries further on facilitated their manipulation of larger numbers The mayan number system was one of the first to use a base-x system They used base-5 Could manipulate numbers with variables ○ Basic concept of algebra Let them create stable pyramids and add the feature that adds Kulkatan to the side when the sun sets chocolate, ○ Was so important to the Mayans that it was used as moolah ○ Thicc and has like no sugar, bitter, important religiously, priests would drink it during rituals and climb to top of pyramids to be closer to gods ○ Gave it to spaniards, and they eventually realized it's worth and revolutionized it (hence: Nesquik) ○ Mayas took it hot aztecs took it cold ○ Very important in mayan and aztec lives Special role in royal and religious ceremonies Mostly drinken on special occasions (mayans) and by the elites (mayans and aztecs) ○ Maya were the first people to discover it and they made it into a drink Took and planted the trees Harvested, fermented, roasted it, and ground the seeds to form a paste ○ Used as currency (even though it was super bitter, EVERYONE wanted it but it was expensive) ○ Aztecs adopted it, and added spices (not sugar though) ○ Columbus first thought it was poop, so he ordered a boat worth of cocoa to be burned ○ Originates from the pan-european word for chocolate: Xocoatl, and got its name bc of a miscommunication Andes, ○ Mountains - lots of ‘em - made trade and farming hard, but with lots of organization and specialization of work, were able to succeed After time passed and they became more successful, the states decided to become independent, but were unable to sustain themselves alone, eventually collapsing ○ Alpacas and llamas ○ Agriculture/resources: lots of potatoes, tomatoes, gold, and copper Aboriginals, ○ 1st aussies ○ The indigenous peoples of Australia  ○ Arrived in Australia at least 50,000 yrs ago ○ Most likely got there through boat ○ They did not settle or have vast creations but still had much more tech than originally thought Ex. Very thought out fish traps Mild agriculture ○ Used slash and burn technique to keep the soil fertile ○ Managed to live in the desert climate ○ Had many works of rock art ○ Some of the rock art is at least 30,000 years old ○ Very fascinating set of religious believes Believed in gods Believed that they must keep those gods happy or else you life/social life will be ruined and the environment will be ruined too One of their sacred sites is Uluru Austronesians ○ A group of people who spoke the austronesian language ○ Austronesian languages modern counterparts include Malayan Indonesian Filipino Polynesian And lots of other oceanic languages ○ Had remarkable sea skills ○ Literally Moana ○ Sailed the ocean in large canoes that were equipped with outriggers, which stabilized the boat ○ They studied, Winds Currents Stars Cloud formations Many other natural indicators ○ Figured out how to travel/find distant lands and make it back home in one piece ○ Started traveling to the northern coast of New Guinea, and traded with indigenous peoples there ○ Also established their own communities in new guinea  Unit 6 - Empires of Persia - Notes EMPIRES OF PERSIA Achaemenid: ○ Led by cyrus the great He started it ○ The first Persian empire (first global superpower) ○ Very tolerant of religions - When they took over other places - One of the ruling dynasties of the persian empire - Main religion: zoroastrianism - Founded by Cyrus - Known for: - Centralized administration, diverse religion/cultural acceptance, complex infrastructure (roads, postal service, etc.), using an official language - Fall of the Persian empire: Xerxes was a bad leader, and Alexander the Great took over the land - Main challenges to ruling over this empire, - The biggest problem was that because the empire was so big and covered many different areas, there were alot of different languages, religions, cultures, and more - The satrapies helped because they were like the mini governors of certain areas, and those satrapies also were under the rule of the king and enforced his rule when he was not there - So the ruler of the empire could focus on other things other than governing 23 different areas at the same time Cyrus - A leader of the Achaemenid empire - He launched the persians imperial venture - Was an achaemenid - Reigned from 558-530 BCE - He came from the mountains in southwestern Iran - He was a tough, wily, leader, who was also a great military strategist - Laid the foundations for the first Persian Empire Darius, - The greatest of the achaemenid emperors - He helped expand the empire greatly - He was a more important administrator than conqueror - Standardized coins and laws - Made taxes more regular Royal Road, - A goods road stretched along the land of the persian empire - Stretched about 2575 kilometers - Took caravans 90 days to travel this road - There was also a courier service that carried along urgent messages  - Also connected Persian Empire through communication, satrapies could communicate and were not as closed off from each other Xerxes, - The one in 300, very freaky ngl (chat what) - Did not have good relationship with people - Last “great” ruler of empire (though not so great) qs ax x Zoroastrianism (main ideas) - Originated from the teaching of Zarathustra - Priests (magi) transmitted teachings verbally - During Seleucid dynasty, began to preserve scriptures in holy book called Avesta - Gathas were Zarathustra’s works of hymns composed in honor of deities - Other literature including hymns, liturgical works, treatises on moral and theological themes - Ahura Mazda recognized as supreme deity of good - Six lesser deities - Ahura Mazda in cosmic conflict with evil adversary called Angra Mainyu - Zoroastrain actually later influenced many of the major religion beliefs seen today - They both believed that good would go to heaven and live happily and the bad would go burn in hell - Good always wins over evil - They have one main god/deity - Do good deeds, and strive to have the best and most fair moral code possible - Everyone undergoes judgment after death - Main moral code of Zoroastrianism, - Allowed people to enjoy the joys of the world but at moderation - A simple formula summed up their teachings “good words, good thoughts, good deeds” - Considered the material a gift from Ahura Mazda, and humans should enjoy it UNIFICATION OF CHINA Study Guide for more info: Ancient China Study Guide (compiled) Emperor Qin Shi Huangdi, ○ First Emperor of China, unified the country in 221 BCE, and established the Qin Dynasty. Known for centralizing power and imposing legalism.Qin Shi Huangdi centralized power by abolishing feudalism and dividing China into administrative regions directly controlled by officials he appointed. He also standardized weights, measures, and the writing system to unify the country. Infrastructure projects included building roads and the Great Wall to enhance military defense and communication, as well as mobilizing labor for massive public works. ○ Had many assassination attempts ○ He was very paranoid because of this ○ This fear from assasanation attempts led him to: ○ Conquer/overthrow the neighboring states, which did lead to the unifying of the states ○ Seek immortality (Like Gilgamesh!!! :) ○ Died from mercury poisoning ○ His tomb had the lifesize army ○ Head of Qin dynasty ○ Legalist 4 life Daoism, ○ The idea of living in harmony with the universe and the world around you ○ Yin and yang came from here Balancing forces (light/dark, hot/cold, etc.) which work together for a universal whole. Artemis is like yin, apollo is like yang (see google classroom for deeper description) ○ Harmony and balance are big things ○ Follow the natural way of life/go with the flow ○ Sometimes defined as wu wei The way of the universe ○ Founder lao tzu he was an old guy, no idea if he's real or not Confucianism, Confucius emphasized 3 several qualities, ren, li, and xiao Ren was an attitude of kindness and benevolence or a sense of humanity. Individuals who possessed this quality were courteous, respectful, diligent, and loyal. Ren was a very good characteristic for government officials. Li was a sense of propriety, which called for individuals to behave in conventional ways. They were expected to treat all humans with courtesy and respect, while showing special respect and deference to elders or superiors. The final value that Confucius emphasized was Xiao (filial piety), which reflected the significance of the family in Chinese society. Children were obliged to respect their parents and other family elders, look after their welfare, support them in old age, and remember them along with other ancestors after their deaths. - Confucius believed that individuals who possessed these traits would gain influence in society and would not only possess personal self-control but have the power of leading others by example. - Confucius believed these types of people were the hope for the restoration of the political and social order in China. - Left a great impact and many of his ideas are still used today - Was relatively hard to work with because he was like a karen, if things weren't perfect he'd throw a fit. Overall, Confucianism focuses on ethics, morality, and the importance of relationships in creating a harmonious society. Lead by example. Silk, ○ Developed in han dynasty, during the neolithic period ○ China had best quality silk ○ Finer and stronger silk ○ Brought lots of trade ○ Started the silk roads ○ Helped them gain power ○ Helped with trade routes ○ They had special silkworms and they like worshipped those things with how much they cared for them Han Dynasty ○ Led by Liu Bang, a former peasant turned emperor/he made this empire ○ Considered one of the most successful dynasties ○ Expanded the most ○ Took over the xiongnu ○ Most famous leader was Han Wudi ○ Ruled from 202 bce to 220 bce.  ○ One of the longest dynasties ○ The goal was to stabilize the government and care for the people, which it was one of the first ever to do so ○ Known for its peace and many inventions (see bottom for more on those) ○ Also called the golden age of ancient china ○ Much of chinese culture came from han dynasty Many Chinese people today are Han ○ Establishment of the civil service Selected educated qualified men to rule in his government instead of people w/ family ties and money ○ Used same governmental system until 1912 ○ Set up an imperial academy ○ Academy trained students in literature ○ Changed the philosophy of the chinese government to confucianism ○ The xin dynasty like split it in two or was like a mini dynasty in between the han dynasty Later Han - Abandons the capital, Chang’an, and moved somewhere else bc of the grave damages done by the revolt ○ The government fell due to the lack of leadership, too much taxes, expenses, poor leadership and distrust and split of government, etc. ○ The yellow turban people were revolting against the han dynasty, claiming the dynasty was coming to an end, they did lose, but they still left their mark ○ They fell to the thing they were trying most to avoid, corruption - Rise - China was in chaos and needed order - Liu bang was determined and had a good set of people to help him - Fall - The yellow turban uprising though it didn't destroy the hans it did take a toll on their state - People revolting - There became factions at court, all focused on gaining power and destroying their rivals - Reached a point of internal weakness, which eventually led to china being divided in several regional kingdoms Order is Xia, Shang, Zhou, Qin, Early Han, Xin, Later Han CLASSICAL INDIA Link to Study guide for more info: Classical India Study Guide (combined) Achievements of Mauryan & Gupta, ○ Mauryan: ○ Encouraged subjects to practice Buddhism and helped to widely spread it ○ Expanded economy ○ Created a stable government ○ Expanded agriculture and built irrigation systems ○ Encouraged trade by building roads with comforts along roads ○ The Edict Pillars ○ Gupta: ○ They laid some of the work for the study of mathematics and and natural sciences ○ Developed techniques of plastic surgery Word plastic comes from Greek word plastikos, meaning to mold Sushruta Samhita by Sushruta physician guy, 1100 diseases, uses of medicinal plants, instructions for surgical procedures Forehead flap rhinoplasty used skin from forehead to reconstruct nose ○ Their astronomers determined that earth was a sphere and was tilted on its axis, rotated ○ They included the number 0, which helped a lot in advanced mathematics ○ Place value notations/symbols for more efficient calculations ○ They were able to carry out advanced algebraical calculations and also able to predict the inclusion of calculus in math ○ They calculated that the value of pi was 3.14159… ○ Determined the lengths of the solar year into 365.3586805 ○ Hindi/Arabic numerals ○ It was an era where high thinkers flourished ○ Works in astrology were features of their knowledge ○ Indian philosophy also flourished greatly during this age ○ There were kings names on coins ○ The arts greatly flourished during this time ○ Very tolerant of other religions Ashoka, ○ Older and younger brother ○ No chance of inheriting throne ○ Mother was commoner, crown prince’s mother was princess ○ 18, sent to Cosmopolitan silk road hub to stop revolt ○ Entrusted with crucial region connecting capital city and coast ○ Fell in love with Devi, thought to be Buddhist ○ 2 children ○ 4 year civil war between brothers ○ Ashoka won and had support from ministers  ○ Crowned 270 BCE ○ Policy of expansion and conquest ○ Kings wanted to be seen as chakravartin (universal ruler) ○ More land → more resources → greater need for stuff ○ Marched into Kalinga kingdom ○ Eventually won war because of terrible carnage ○ Ashoka felt horror at the death of all his enemies ○ 150k (each?) captured, enslaved, died from disease ○ Horrified at the many left without those important to them ○ Remorse for conquering Kalinga ○ Said he wouldn’t be provoked into more warfare ○ Change led him to Buddha ○ First king in history to convert to Buddhism ○ Slow path to religion to benefit subjects ○ Tolerance for other 2 religions ○ Went on pilgrimage to important sites ○ Erected pillars carved with edicts/orders, read out by officials to illiterates, personal messages ○ Worry that without him, empire would fall ○ Stern fatherlike figure, would give out punishment if necessary, but not want to ○ Went on pilgrimages to visit holy sites and met subjects, talked to locals to see how they were doing ○ Values he spread known as Ashoka’s dhammas/dharmas ○ Wished people would be obedient toward parents and teachers, kind toward old, no violence ○ Dhamma: Teachings ○ Dharma: RIghteous path ○ Planted stuff for food, shade, and water ○ Sent missionaries ○ Mahendra, Ashoka’s first born son, sent out and converted Sri Lanka to Buddhism ○ 72 at age of death, reigned 38 years ○ Mauryan empire fell after half a century after he died ○ Buddhism faith traveled along silk road to China, Japan, etc ○ Less prominent in origin Jainism, ○ Won't harm any living thing AT ALL This is what made following the practices really hard and inaccessible because only the monk could follow these practices Made most jobs impossible because most jobs included harming some sort of souls No onions or garlic or any root plants bc it harms the plant ○ Extreme asceticism ○ Ahimsa  ○ Attained nirvana and shared teachings with the world ○ Wanted to pass along knowledge ○ Four great truths was the main subject Dukkha - truth of suffering, life is inherently painful, all conditional aspects of existence have unsatisfactory nature, pain, sickness, death, impermanence, unfulfillment Samudaya - origin of suffering from desire or attachment, craving for pleasure, existence, nonexistence, rooted in ignorance Nirodha - cessation of suffering, can be stopped through achieving nirvana, a state of being Marga/Magga - the way to the cessation of suffering, by following noble eightfold path Right view Right resolve Right speech Right conduct/action Right livelihood Right effort Right mindfulness Right samadhi/concentration ○ Returned to homeland, reunited with father and son, who became a Buddhist monk ○ Decided to leave and achieve nirvana ○ Lay between flowering trees and began deep meditation, nirvana for final time ○ Cremated ○ Buddhism spread throughout, especially China, Japan, Korea ○ Schools taught foundations of the Buddha Buddhist meditation, ○ Purpose: Keep mind calm, peaceful, and focused on the present ○ If the mind is peaceful, we will be free from worries and mental discomfort Obtain true happiness ○ If our mind is not peaceful, it will be very hard to be happy ○ If we train in meditation, our mind will become more peaceful And experience true forms of happiness ○ Eventually, we will become more present and happy Even in the most difficult circumstances Buddhism main ideas Buddhism central ideas and basics from 7 Hard Buddhist Habits A. One Task at one time B. Do it slowly and intentionally C. Do it thoroughly  D. Everything has its right time E. Make time to sit silent F. Smile and help others G. Reflect on what you really need Other Buddhism stuff - Four noble truths 1. Kutal/dukkha - truth of suffering; life is full of suffering, inherently painful 2. Jutal/samudaya - cause/origin of suffering; desire/pleasure, attachment, and ignorance causes suffering 3. Mettal/nirodha - cessation of suffering, eliminating desire and ignorance stops suffering and promotes nirvana 4. Dotal/marga/magga - path to the cessation of suffering, suffering can be stopped through following the noble eightfold path - Noble eightfold path 1. Right belief/view - free of prejudice, superstition, and delusion to see truth 2. Right resolve/thought - evil is bad, act righteously 3. Right speech - speak kindly and courteously 4. Right behavior/conduct/action - act properly 5. Right occupation/livelihood - live to avoid consequences 6. Right effort - put in effort to overcome ignorance and desire 7. Right contemplation/mindfulness - good thoughts and resulting actions 8. Right samadhi/meditation - concentrate on Buddha and stuff - Nirvana - Personal salvation - Escaping reincarnation cycle - Spiritual independence - Bodhisattvas - People who reach nirvana but choose to stay - Help others who are struggling - Can do good deeds for others - Appeal - To escape incarnation cycle without depending on brahmins - No value in social distinctions - Appealed to lower castes - Used vernacular tongues reaching a more popular audience - Holy sites as focal points and stupas - Organization with monastic communities with monks - Spread - Monasteries preached to people - Ashoka promoted it, promoting nonviolence - Pilgrimages to holy sites - Missionaries to different places - Monasteries offered education ANCIENT GREECE & ROME Greek religion and mythology (the basics), Minoans, Mycenaeans, Trojan War, Homer, Pericles, Persian Wars, Spartans vs. Athenians, democracy, Peloponnesian War, Classical art/architecture, Greek theater, arête, hubris, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Greek achievements, Philip II, Alexander the Great, Hellenistic, Ptolemaic, Alexandria, patricians vs. plebeians, senate, tribunes, Twelve Tables, republic, Punic Wars, Pax Romana, Caesar, Augustus, legion, gladiators, “bread & circus,” Spartacus, principle Roman values, paterfamilia, Jesus, Christianity 54 Greek religion and mythology (the basics), - Lots of incest… - The origin story of the gods and how they came in power - The world started with Uranus and gaia, the universe and the Earth - Those guys fell in love and had kids, one breed were monsters who like the one hundred armed ones and the cyclopes and the others were titans - Uranus thought the monsters were ugly so he made Gaia chuck them into Tartarus (not the fish sauce, that's tartar sauce). Anyway, ita the deepest, darkest, scariest whole where all evil things go to die and just rot, so hell - Gaia was pissed about this and had the youngest of the Titans, Chronos, god of time, go and kill his father - So Chronos chopped his father up into little pieces and then the Titans came into power and chronos married his sister Rhea, and became the king of the gods - Eventually Rhea was pregnant and Chronos was scared his kids would overthrow him, like he did to his father so he ate the kid. In Fact every time one of his kids was born, he swallowed it whole - So Rhea was obvs pissed and then after like 5 times she said enough and gave birth to zeus in secret and gave him to nymphs to raise him in secret in like caves - She gave Chronos a bundle of rocks to swallow instead of zeus and that dumbass believed her - So eventually zeus grew up and wanted revenge and to save his eaten siblings, so he with the help of Rhea, he became the Titans cup bearer - With his new and classy job he gave Chronos poison to drink and that poison caused Chronos to throw up all the kids he swallowed - Poseidon, Hestia, Hera, Demeter, and Hades came out fully grown and ready to fight - Then a giant war happened, and the gods got the help of the Cyclops and the other monsters in Tartarus and they won. The end. - 12 main gods who had thrones on the top of mt olympus (Olympians) - Zeus - Could not keep it in his pants to save his life - God of lightning, thunder, the storm - King of gods - Married to Hera and is also her sister - Big three god - Hera - Married to zeus who is her brother - Queen of gods - Live laughed loved peacocks - Got pissed at zeus’s affairs but bc she couldn't take her anger out on him she took it out on the humans he did the devils tango with  - Threw hephaestus off olympus after he was born (chucking away ugly kids must run in the greek god family) - Poseidon - King of the sea - Married a sea nymph - Has a palace underwater bc vibes - I wanna say made horses or fathered horses but I could be wrong - Big 3 god - Hephestus - Was literally thrown off mt. olympus as a baby, thats why hes crippled - God of the forge and weaponry, is married to aphrodite but she actually loves his brother Ares instead so that's just awkward - Son of Hera and Hera only, Hera had him to prove a point that she didn't need zeus, but then hephaestus was ugly so she threw him off olympus in her anger or grief - Has two metal helpers (made of gold and iron?) to help him get around - He's the reason for volcanoes - Ares - Some dumbass war god - Son of Zeus and hera? - Literally anger issues galore - Got stuck in a jar - Had an affair with aphrodite while she was still married to his brother Hephestus - Demeter - Goddess of grain and the harvest - Daughter is persephone and when she gets kidnapped by Hades, she goes into depression creating winter - Has a scythe as her weapon - Apollo - Twin brother to Artemis - God of sun, music, healing - Zesty AF - Mom was a titan named Leto, very protective of her - Drives the sun chariot - Prophecies and like the oracles where his thing - Played the lyre - Artemis - Twin sister to Apollo - Goddess of the hunt, maiden, the moon - Zeus’s fave kid - Mom was a titan named Leto, very protective of her - Helped Leto deliver Apollo right after she was born - Turned a dude into a deer and got him eaten by his own dogs after he was peeping on her and her nymph friends bathing (she's valid for that) - Maiden goddess - Athena - Goddess of wisdom, war, idk… - Live laugh loves the owl  - Patron saint of Athens - The parthenon (the temple on top of the acropolis) is her own temple - There's a giant 40 ft statue made of marble and gold in the acropolis of her where she's holding an 8ft statue of Nike, the goddess of victory - Was born out of zeus’s forehead (long story) - Turned a lady into a spider because she was boasting about how she was a better weaver than Athena and was just roasting the gods (Arachne) - Turned medusa into an evil snake monster thing, yk what I mean, which was either to protect or punish her from what happened with poseidon in her temple - Had a shield with medusa's head on it to scare her opponent - Maiden goddess - Aphrodite - Goddess of love and beauty - Has a son who is cupid, idk his name - Came out of the sea foam from uranus’s blood that dropped into the ocean after chronos cut him up - Doves are her thing - Married to Hephestus but loves Ares - Gave Helen to Paris, which started the Trojan war - Hermes - Messenger god - Brought souls to the underworld - Had winged sandals - His staff is the symbol of medicine - Stole apollo's sheep and introduced him to the lyre - Dionysus - God of wine and knew how to party’ - Born out of zeus thigh (long story) - Liam S’s fave god - Had full on ragers with the little goat dudes - Turned into a dolphin to escape pirates who kidnapped him - Gods/goddesses without thrones but still important - Hades - God of the underworld - Kidnapped his wife, persephone - Big 3 god - Persephone - Has stockholm syndrome - Demeter and zeus’s daughter - Lowkey kinda stupid but we love her for that - Kinda a maiden goddess kinda not - Hestia - Goddess of the hearth and home - Gave up her throne so dionysus could have a seat on olympus - Literally just tends to the hearth (giant fireplace/firepit) on mt Olympus the whole time - Maiden goddess Minoans, - They were taken over by the mycenaeans - Minos was the legendary king of the island of crete which was where minoan society was - They built many palaces throughout the island, - Very grand - Had toilets - The main parts of the society - They had storage houses where officials collected taxes - Palace at Knossos had frescos - Rulers lived in the palaces - Palace officials created a language called linear A - Still undeciphered - Used for economy and commercial purposes - Was pictographic - Symbols represented syllables - Traded with the phoenicians and many other societies - Center of Mediterranean commerce - Influenced by Phoenicia and Egypt, Phoenician watercraft - Exchanged wine, olive oil, and wool for grains, textiles, and manufactured goods in Greece, Anatolia, Phoenicia, and Egypt - Colonies later established on Cyprus and islands in Aegean for copper and markets with tin - Earthquakes, volcanic eruption, and tidal waves, especially volcano on island of Thera/Santorini - Palaces rebuilt with plumbing - Wealth attracted invaders and Crete was occupied - Crete pronunciation = KREET, or in greek pronunciation = Kreety- THANK YOU NINA - Island society - Located in the east-central Mediterranean - Commercial center - Phoenician and Egyptian influences benefited society - Traded with different societies - Series of natural disasters - Attracted invaders - The start of their fall ws because of natural causes like volcanoes and such, and they made their palaces more luxurious but then their wealth attracted foreign invaders which led to their downfall from foreign domination. Their traditions of maritime trade, writing,a dn construction still deeply influencedGreece. Mycenaeans, - Indo-Europeans migrated to Greek peninsula and traded with Minoans/Crete - Adapted Linear A to Linear B - Built stone fortresses and palaces in S Greek Peninsula-Peloponnesus - Named after settlement of Mycenae - Expanded past peninsula into Minoan society and occupied Crete, settled in Anatolia, Sicily, and S Italy - Conflict with Troy in Anatolia - 1100-800 BCE, invasions and civil disturbances, unstable government, unproductive agriculture  - Fell into ruin, declining population, abandoned settlements, people in peninsulas fled to islands, writing disappeared Trojan War, - Greeks vs. Trojans - Ten year siege on Troy by Greeks - Gained access to city by use of trojan horse - Names to know: - Achilles - Odysseus - Paris - Trojan prince - Stole Helen from Sparta - Killed Achilles (arrow to heel) - Killed by Philoctetes (poisoned arrow) - Ajax - “Ajax the Great” - Killed himself - Hector - Helen - Wife of Menelaus - Kidnapped by Paris - Said to be the most beautiful woman in the world - Menelaus - Spartan King - Philoctetes Homer, - A profoundly influential figure - Wrote the odyssey and the iliad - These poems that he had written were actually passed down by word of mouth long before he had written them Pericles- - Most popular athenian leader, from 461 Bce to his death in 429 Bce - Wielded enormous personal influence in government - Had hundreds of officeholders from the common classes - Supported building programs which provided jobs for thousands of construction workers and laborers - Made athens what it was known for with philosophy and democracy Persian Wars - During 5th century BCE the greeks links abroad made them come into contact with conflict with the persian empire, this long struggle known as the persian wars (500-479 BCE) - Persian emperor Cyrus and Darius I tightened his grip on anatolia which made the ionian cities restless - The ionians revolted against persians and expelled the persian administrators, and the athenians came down to help the ionians with ships  - But still Darius repressed the Ionian rebellion by 493 BCE - Then darius was like nuh uh and wanted to punish the athenians while also preventing any more greek interferences so they launched a full attack on the greek peninsula which makes no sense but cook I guess - In 490 BCE he sent a army and a fleet of ships to attack Athens, and though the athenians were greatly outnumbered they routed the persians back to the battle of the marathon and then they marched back to athens to continue to fight off the persians fleets just in time - Then ten years later xerxes, darius’s successor wanted to avenge the persians and went back again for a round two in 480 BCE - They were famously delayed by the Spartans at Thermopylae - The persians succeeded in capturing and burning athens - BUT then a greek fleet succeed in demolishing the persian Navy at the battle of salamis, which xerxes himself was actually watching on a makeshift throne on a hillside beside the battle - Then a year later a greek force at Plataea rounded the persians and the survivors went back to Anatolia - The greeks continued to fight but it never reached war Spartans vs. Athenians-fax Athens Sparta - Very inclusive (minus the women) - Included women, and actually taught them - They have created a lot stuff - Not oligarchic, hierarchical - Very strong allegiance to their city - Valued education from the intellectual state/nationalistic perspective - They had eugenics, if you weren't strong - Economy was more stable you would die - better/more improved navy - Economy was much less strong, much - More philosophers less diverse, relied heavily on agriculture - Celebrated wisdom and the arts - Very harsh, encouraged bullying and - Pretty like sexist starving within their training to make - Democratic them super strong  - Punished for being caught, but not for stealing, do it well but don't get caught - Only way to get a tombstone is sparta is to either die in childbirth, or die on the battlefield - The mothers would tell their sons, either come back carrying your shield or on it - Had a king democracy, - No longer had a select group of elites controlling government, and gave the power to the ordinary people - The created the first democracy - Transformed their city to house the new system - People assembled on the pnyx, where laws were made - 500 ordinary met everyday at the council house to plan the topics discussed at the pnyx - Had a different prime minister each month and everyone would have a term at court - Two disks were but into a ballot box, one has the inscriptions for guilty, the other said not guilty (early voting system) - They made a clariatriaon, which was a random selection machine, and it was impossible to turn the thing into your favor - They really loved fairness and honesty - Offices were filled by a random lottery who placed volunteers where they should go - Encouraged everyone to vote - Only positions filled by elections where those that required experience, like generals - Civic participation seemed to be the duty of all eligible citizens - Prevented building up allegiances What were the main drawbacks/limitations? - Still excluded many people (women, slaves, immigrants) - Factored that out along with all the people of age it left a pool of about 10% to 20% of eligible people - Thought to be anarchic and run by fools - Harder to progress as a society Peloponnesian War, - Sparta and Athens both grew to be the most power poleis in the Greek peninsula - Surrounding poleis joined in alliance, dividing the land into two separate “teams” (the Athanian side and the Spartan side) - This launched a demoralizing war between the two - Sparta eventually won as the dominating force, forcing Athens into an unconditional surrender, but this did not stop conflict from breaking out again  - Thucydides (athenian) wrote an account of the war, and did not refrain from describing Athens’ brutal tactics - They enforced severe punishments, and even massacred a whole island killing all the men and sold women and children into slavery - This caused them to lose their reputation, and become known as imperialist and insensitive - War overall weakened all of the Greek poleis Classical art/architecture, - Their buildings were very symmetrical and eye pleasing - The parthenon was built using doric style columns - Most greek columns had fluted sides - Made amazing sculpture and artwork - Greek sculptures made figures like gods, peoples, and athletes from marble - The greek statue makers were super obsessed with the perfect form, which is why much of their sculptures have great muscle tone and form - Greek paintings mainly are pottery paintings - The paintings are mainly basic colorings and side profiles - As time went on and they got more access to paints their artwork became more intricate and they started wall murals and paintings - Literature was super cool - Biggest pieces were the iliad and the odyssey - These inspired many future artists - Many of these - The word music is based on the muses - They created music and dance that was for every occasion (funerals, war, etc.) - Made many musical instrument - Lyre Greek theater, - The festival of dionysus happens in april, when sailing season comes, so everyone can come and watch - In the festival of Dionysius, there were three plays put on, each funded by their own rich man for the honor. - If your plays won the competition, then it said your name would be inscribed on the wall for honor, yk - Three types of greek plays - Comedy - Ugly characters - Satire - Mythological comedy rude plays - Tragedy - Very beautiful characters - Dithyrambs turned into theatre, when singers stopped singing the actions and started acting them too - One actor paired with a chorus was greek tragedy in its earliest forms - It was changed between people by masks - Tragedy comes from the greek words goat and song, might have to do with the goat sacrifices that went on - The tyrant king decided that festival of dionysus, would also be about theatre, also was for making athens a place of honor again - Theatre competitions took place in front of pretty much all the athenian society, women and slaves included - But only men could perform and vote for the best play - The courageous would assemble the chorus and all the other stuff - Had mainly on two or three actors playing every role, switching between masks to switch characters - Masks were made of linen with hair attached - Tragedy actors wore robes and shoes with platforms - This was taken very seriously, so no funny business - We don't have many of the greek plays that were made, we have about 30 at most - Watching plays was actually a civic duty according to athenians - Because they were seeing plays that actually dove deep into the big meanings behind their society, it makes you think what does a good citizen, family member, or person do? - Theatre helps you feel emotions that would have been bottle up otherwise arête, - Something to strive for in life - The idea and goal of excellence as a person - Holding strong virtue and being morally good - The idea of applying a quality of excellence to everything you do hubris, - Dangerous, excessive pride - Defies the gods order - The idea that you are almost god-like yourself - Serves as an example of human arrogance, and how pridefulness is dangerous Socrates, - Good acts should make people happier/better, don't just do them for the god (very dangerous idea) - Had conversations that helped advance thinking - Monotheistic belief instead of greek gods, this thinking led to his death sentence - He challenged the orthodox views that the gods are good and the best, and instead said that what makes the society better is good and the best (defying the belief in the gods) - never wrote anything down, and instead held discussions with younger educated men - he is primarily known for the socratic method of asking questions and reflecting - he got sentenced to death because of his unorthodox views and was considered a bit dangerous to those in power - condemned to death, so he had to drink hemlock poison in front of his students Plato, - Socrates student - founded the academy, which was a school where rich young men studied mathematics, astronomy, law, and, of course, philosophy - allowed women to go to this academy and learn - the academy was not based on wealth - taught about the two spheres of reality - writes a book named the republic, it basically defines the meaning of justice by separating it into 3 orders based on talents - he isn't promoting a caste system, but he is saying that there is a difference between importance - he believed that philosophers should run the city - kinda includes a bit of an eastern philosophy, confucianism (having the wisest leading) - 1st layer (base), peasants - 2nd layer, military - 3rd layer (top), philosophers ruling as kings - we need to get rid of our bias and opinions that we hold because it clouds our judgment - aiming to try to uncover the truth Aristotle, - Plato's student - He created the idea of LOGIC - Trust your head - Built arguments based off reason - he created the scientific method, which is testing if things are true or not, requires evidence and data to prove right or wrong - called the master of those who know - wrote the first thing about psychology, and just figuring out the mind in general works - he talks about how we have these animalistic desires, and how we can control these desires Greek achievements, - Food - Mathematics: - Euclid's "Elements" established the foundation of geometry, while Archimedes made significant contributions to calculus, mechanics, and the calculation of pi. - Astronomy: - Eratosthenes accurately calculated the Earth's circumference, and Hipparchus developed a detailed star catalog. Aristarchus proposed the first known heliocentric model of the solar system, although this theory was not widely accepted at the time. - Medicine: - Herophilus and Erasistratus conducted detailed anatomical studies, making significant progress in understanding the human body, particularly the nervous system. - The Library of Alexandria: - This intellectual center played a crucial role in preserving and spreading knowledge by containing many writings from all over, and was a place of study for scholars. - By the end of the 5th century CE it vanished - Many believed that it was destroyed in a fire, but it's much more complicated than that - They lowkey had the goal of getting every single book ever made, they literally had a book tax for the ships that entered their port - It was thriving until 48 BCE when caesar came in and conquered - The library might have burned a bit, but even so scholars still visited it - So people have come to believe that it just faded throughout time as it went from Greek, to roman, to christian, then eventually to muslim hands. - Every one viewed it contents as threats and not impressive works or sources of pride - The fear of knowledge ruined the library - Philosophy: - Hellenistic philosophy primarily explored ethical questions about how individuals should live. - Major schools of thought: - Stoicism: Emphasized living in harmony with nature and accepting what cannot be controlled, focusing on virtue as the key to happiness. - Epicureanism: Advocated for seeking pleasure, particularly the absence of pain, as the goal of life. - Skepticism: Questioned the possibility of attaining absolute knowledge and encouraged suspension of judgment. - Art: - a shift towards greater realism in depicting human emotions and experiences, with notable works like the "Winged Victory of Samothrace," "Laocoön and His Sons," and "Venus de Milo," showcasing dynamic poses, intense expressions, and a focus on the human form with more individualistic characteristics compared to the idealized classical Greek style. Philip II, - Under his reign, macedon went under a very thorough transformation - He built a powerful military that allowed him to overthrow the old clans and become the new ruler of Macedon  - His military had - Infantry composed of landowners - Calvary staffed by aristocrats who held large estates - Both elements proved to be well trained and nearly invincible - Once he had macedon, he turned his attention to overtaking Greece and the Persian empire - During the year 350 BCE, he moved into northern greece taking over the cities and such - Because he was conquering right after the peloponnesian war, greece was spent out, so Phillip had no trouble moving into Greece and conquering - greece was lowkey dead when philip the second conquered it - phillip spent most of his time in thebes, and learned many things there - promote people to elite units based on merit, - hit hard in a specific plate - gave all his warriors 20 ft pole - the Athenians did not care and just ignored the macedonians, and it wasn't until the macedonians reached really close by that the athenians were like hey, let's do something (it was too late) Alexander the Great, - alexander was very innovative and was very good at figuring out cool battle tactics - after he conquered Greece he went for persia, just to outdo his dad - he literally just wanted all of the persian empire - typically he was very cordial with who he conquered and didn't do anything terrible, but when it came to Tyrus, he just went in and killed all of them - he treated his subjects very respectfully, took a page out of persians book - very religiously respectful - after he met the oracle he went back to conquering the persian empire - he was very very innovative and creative - even after darius was dead he still conquered well into the indus valley - he was becoming more king like, which weirded out the greeks because they hated monarchs - he died, and left behind a giant empire, which ended up splitting up, and each part was governed by his generals - Antigonus: Greece and Madedon - Ptolemy: Egypt - Seleucus: Achaemenid empire (Persia) (biggest portion) Hellenistic, - The age of alexander the great and his successors - The era where Greek cultural traditions expanded their influence beyond just greece - Between alexander's death and being taken over by rome, the hellenistic empires governed cosmopolitan societies and facilitated the interaction between people from Greece to India - Helped integrate economies and trade of many different regions Ptolemaic, - The wealthiest of the Hellenic empires  - The Greek and Macedonian overlords did not really interfere with the already good egyptian society and just were happy with the organization of agriculture, the efficient industry, and tax collection - They maintained the irrigation systems and they watched over the cultivation of crops, also kept on the payment of taxes - Established the royal monopolies over really big industries - Textiles - Salt making - Brewing of beer Alexandria, - It was the center of trade between Europe and the arabian and indian east - It became the world's largest city (second only to rome) - Very diverse and they all lived happily ever after together, yk? - Had library of alexandria - It was a beacon of knowledge - Housed countless scrolls and manuscripts from many different areas - It made it a very great place for scholars - The Pharos Lighthouse - Was one of the seven wonders of the ancient world - Guided sailors throughout the sea - It was set fire to by caesar's army during their conquering ROME patricians vs. plebeians, Patricians Plebeians - Elite class determined by birth - Common people - Voted for the consuls - They threatened to leave rome and make their own rival settlement bc tensions were so high between them and patricians senate, - Made up of patricians - Had extensive political responsibilities - Advised consuls - Ratified (approved) all major decisions made by consuls - Senate later got the decision of electing those who served in the senate tribunes, - The officials the Patricians gave the plebians the right to elect - They represented the plebeian interest within the roman government - They originally chose two but then that number rose to ten  - They had the power to intervene in all political matters and veto unfair laws Twelve Tables, - Rome's first set of laws - They took inspo from greek laws to establish the social organization for rome - Served as the foundation for roman law making Republic, - Form of government instituted following the overthrow of the last Etruscan king - Included: - Republic constitution, which put civil and military power in to executive consuls - Consuls were decided by elite members called “patricians” - Senate, also made up of patricians, who ratified the senate and advised them - Those in consuls served one year terms - Put the power into the people not just a king or a single person - This was not exactly true though, because lower class citizens called plebeians had no representation at the time (until tribunes came, which still gave them little to no power) Punic Wars, - When the romans clashed with carthage - They fought three very bad conflicts known as the Punic wars - They were both fighting for regional supremacy - They ended up defeating carthage, making them the most powerful within the western mediterranean region - This then led them to get into more fights with the eastern mediterranean which the ended up conquering them-ish, but this led to them becoming the biggest power throughout western and eastern mediterranean Pax Romana, - Means “roman peace” - The era started during Augustus's reign, he started it - It persisted for two and a half centuries - Despite the occasional flare up from people who hated the roman rule, the Pax Romana helped facilitate trade and communication all around the region from mesopotamia to the atlantic ocean Caesar, - Most famous emperor of rome or somewhere on that chart - How did Caesar’s status grow, and how did he finally seize power? - His status grew because he was… - Very active in roman politics, member of the First Trimutive - He spent enormous sums of money sponsoring the building of public activities (fights between gladiators, wild animals, etc.) - These activities kept him in the public eye and helped him rack up points - He also lead the roman army to gaul, and conquered it making it apart of the roman empire  - This conquest helped with easing political problems and also made him uber popular - Then the conservatives were like, hey he sucks, because they were afraid of him, but caesar refused to back down and like literally pointed his army towards rome and named himself dictator of rome, but pulled a putin and put himself for life instead of six months - What were Caesar’s main policies and how did these alienate him from Rome’s elites? - He centralized military and political functions and brought them under his control - He took property from the elite conservatives, and gave it to veterans of his army and his other supporters - Launched large scale building projects as ways to employ the poor - Extended roman citizenship to people in imperial provinces and appointed gauls to the roman senate - These policies paved the way for a centralized imperial government within rome - Eventually it alienated the roman elites from him because they didn't like or what he stood for, also like he was pretty much going against all traditional rules for ruling. So like all good emperors do, the elites stabbed Caesar to death in the roman forum (is that why they call it a Caesar salad because he got all chopped up?) Augustus, - Power passed to him after Caesars struggle (he was Caesar's great nephew) - Also known as Octavian, who defeated his enemy Mark Antony (is this guy an actor?) - Given the name Augustus, which has strong religious roots and suggests semi-divineness - Fashioned an imperialist government, shaped Rome's affairs for the next 3 years - Preserved traditional values but also radically changed government - Reorganized military system legion, class article on roman legion → https://docs.google.com/document/d/1Fej192YvjTaNLTsZ6WbC8gT5xFqdqSLZ4uUy4NVCHi8/edit ?tab=t.0 - Military was the backbone of Rome’s success - Army and legions used Rome’s roads to move quickly and efficiently - Soldiers signed up to fight for 20 years minimum - Army was divided into legions of about 5,400 soldiers - Usually led by a senator or a governor, called a legate - Given good armor for protection - Used a variety of weapons gladiators, - They were the prime athletes of ancient rome - Marshalls poem was the only surviving account of the gladiator fights and actually points out many of the contradictions - The emperor's presence was very crucial, because when he was in the emperor's box everyone could see him and he could see everyone - The gladiator fights was part of the bread and circus, bc the people needed entertainment to keep them at bay and stop then from rebelling - The morning was beast combat  - Noon was executions - Afternoon was the paired combats/gladiators - They both enter through the gate of life, if they lived they would leave the same way, if they died they would exit through the gate of death - The winner is given a wooden staff symbolising their freedom - They had a big like giant fish bowl on his head and and heavy shield, so it was 35-40 lbs of extra weight - If you fought bravely enough the emperor could give you the opportunity to become a normal citizen - If a gladiator is wounded and down on the sands he can lift his finger and ask for survival - The outcome of the games is in the end decided by the emperor but its very rare that he would go against the people's choice because he wanted to stay in their favor - The rudis (that stick) was life or death “bread & circus,” - The wealthy had palace like houses, that had formal gardens and threw gorgeous banquets with super rare and exotic foods - The poor on the other hand were stuck eating like bread and bland and boring foods - Poverty soon became a big problem throughout all of Rome, and the angry and dissatisfied citizens began mini riots and were building up the rich people's personal armies - So instead of creating an urban policy the imperials just sought to keep the masses contented by using“bread and circus” which is subsidized grain and public entertainment Spartacus, - An escaped slave who assembled an army of 70,000 other rebellious slaves in revolt to how they were treated - They were defeated but it was still really impressive principle Roman values, - Holding virtue, or value in what you do - Gravitas, meaning seriousness and responsibility - Loyalness - Sense of duty to your family and country - Valuing the law and government paterfamilia, - “Father of the family” - Roman law gave the paterfamilia complete power over their households - Arranged marriages for his children - Could execute or sell children off to slavery - Determine what their jobs would be - Could punish them for whatever he deemed fit - They typically ruled tyrannically over their households - Typically was the eldest male Jesus (ask Matthew), - Known as Jesus of Nazareth - The dude who christians formed their community around and recognized as their savior - He was a charismatic Jewish teacher - Born in about the year 4 BCE - He grew up in a time of high tension between the romans and the Jews - He was peaceful and drew large crowds with his teachings about devotion to god and love for his fellow humans and his reputation of wisdom and a miracle worker (especially about healing the sick) - He alarmed the romans bc he kept on saying that “the kingdom of god is at hand” for him it probs means spiritually and like kingdom of heaven and all that jazz, but the romans interpreted it as more political and took offense - So because jesus (it didn't help that he had a stupid amount of people following him wherever he went) the Kingdom of god seemed like a threat to the roman kingdom in palestine, they crucified Jesus in the early 30s CE Christianity (Ask Matthew) After Jesus’s crucifixion some of his followers thought that he had rose from the dead Many different branches of it (orthodox, Catholic, Presbyterian, etc) Most popular religion with the world with about 2.3 billion followers (live laugh love google) The Romans lowkey hated it and would kill off the christians so they’d be burned, crucified, used as sacrifices during gladiator games, but the funny thing is that they would rather die as martyrs