Ancient Civilizations: Prehistoric Towns - PDF

​ 3. Prehistoric towns​ ​ ​ ​ 3.1. North Africa​ ​ ​ ​ 1. Carthage: Founded by the Phoenicians of Tyre, Carthage was located on the Mediterranean and was a major rival to Rome. ​ ​ 2. Thebes: The oldest city in Africa, Thebes was the capital and religious cent...

​ 3. Prehistoric towns​ ​ ​ ​ 3.1. North Africa​ ​ ​ ​ 1. Carthage: Founded by the Phoenicians of Tyre, Carthage was located on the Mediterranean and was a major rival to Rome. ​ ​ 2. Thebes: The oldest city in Africa, Thebes was the capital and religious center of Egypt during the Middle and New Kingdoms. ​ ​ 3. Memphis: The first capital of Egypt, Memphis is home to the Pyramids of Giza. ​ ​ 4. Tipasa: Located in Algeria, Tipasa was a Phoenician settlement in the 7th or 6th century BC. ​ ​ 5. Hadrumetum: Located in Tunisia, Hadrumetum was a Phoenician settlement in the 7th or 6th century BC. ​ ​ ​ ​ 1. Carthage​ ​ Carthage was an ancient city located in North Africa, specifically on the coast of what is now Tunisia, and was founded by the Phoenicians, making it not technically "prehistoric" but rather a significant ancient city-state with a rich history in the classical period; it is most famous for its conflicts with the Roman Republic during the Punic Wars. ​ ​ Key points about Carthage:​ ○​ Origin: Founded by Phoenician settlers from Tyre around 814 BC. ○​ Location: Situated on the northern coast of Africa, near the modern city of Tunis. ○​ Trade Power: Considered one of the most important trading hubs in the ancient Mediterranean, controlling a large trade empire across the region. ○​ Punic Wars: Carthage famously clashed with the Roman Republic in a series of wars, ultimately leading to its destruction by the Romans in 146 BC. ○​ Legacy: Despite its destruction, the site of Carthage remains an important archaeological location and is recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site ○​ Phoenician settlers were traders and colonizers who established settlements and trading posts throughout the Mediterranean in the 10th century BCE ​ The Punic Wars were a series of three conflicts between the Roman Republic and the Carthaginian Empire that took place from 264–146 BCE: ​ ○​ First Punic War: Fought mainly around Sicily ○​ Second Punic War: Involved a much larger area, including North Africa, Spain, and the Italian Peninsula ○​ Third Punic War: The Romans destroyed Carthage, ending the rivalry between the two civilizations ​ The wars were fought over control of the Mediterranean region, including the Italian peninsula, Sicily, northern Africa, and southern Spain. The conflicts resulted in: The destruction of Carthage, The enslavement of the Carthaginian population, and Roman hegemony over the western Mediterranean. ​ ​ Some key events and people from the Punic Wars include: ​ ○​ Battle of Zama: In 202 BCE, Hannibal charged the Romans with elephants, but Scipio deflected the attack. The Romans killed the Carthaginians on the elephants and then crushed the enemy with a cavalry charge and infantry advance. ○​ Hannibal: Led the Carthaginian side in the Second Punic War. He conquered Spanish tribes, including the Olcades and the Vaccaei. ○​ Scipio Africanus: Led the Roman troops that defeated Hannibal in the Second Punic War. ○​ ​ ○​ 2. Thebes Ancient Thebes was the city of Amun, and it was the capital of Egypt during the period of the Middle and New Kingdoms. It lies about 700 km south of Cairo on the banks of the River Nile. With the temples and palaces at Karnak and Luxor, and the necropolises of the Valley of the Kings and the Valley of the Queens, Thebes is a striking testimony to Egyptian civilization at its height, when the city became the capital of an empire extending from the Euphrates to northern Sudan.​ ​ The three-part serial property consists of the two temples of Karnak and Luxor on the East bank of the Nile, and a large archaeological area on the West Bank consisting of seven named temples or complexes, covering an area of 7,390 ha with a buffer zone of 444 ha.​ ​ ​ ​ Ancient Thebes was one of the richest and most important cities in ancient Egypt. Throughout most periods of ancient Egyptian history, Thebes functioned as the religious capital of the country. In certain periods, such as the Second Intermediate Period (c. 1650-1550 BCE), following the invasion of the Hyksos (a western Asian people), and their taking over the north of Egypt, establishing their capital in the eastern Delta city known as Avaris, local Egyptian dynasties (Dynasties 16 and 17) ruled from Thebes.​ ​ ​ ​ The remains of an ancient town from about 1500 to 1000 BCE was one of the most spectacular in Egypt, with a population of perhaps 50,000. Even in the Middle Kingdom, four centuries earlier, Thebes had earned a reputation as one of the ancient world’s greatest cities. Within it, the Egyptians had built the huge temple complexes of Karnak and Luxor. These are two of the largest religious structures ever constructed, and the homes of priesthoods of great wealth and power. On the West Bank lies the Theban Necropolis covering about 10 km² in which archaeologists have found thousands of tombs, scores of temples, and a multitude of houses, villages, shrines, monasteries, and workstations.​ ​ Thebes includes areas on both the east and west banks of the Nile. The east bank contains the living city as well as fourteen temples, the most famous of which are the temples of Luxor and Karnak. The west bank is known as the “City of the Dead”.​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ 3. Memphis​ ​ According to a commonly accepted tradition, Memphis was founded about 2925 bce by Menes, who supposedly united the two prehistoric kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt The original name of the city was the White Walls, and the term may have referred originally to the king’s palace, which would have been built of whitewashed brick. The modern name of Memphis is a Greek version of the Egyptian Men-nefer, the name of the nearby pyramid of the 6th-dynasty (c. 2325–c. 2150 bce) king Pepi I. Another geographic term for Memphis, Hut-ka-Ptah (“mansion of the ka of Ptah”), rendered Aigyptos in Greek, was later applied to the country as a whole.​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ 4. Tipasa​ ​ Tipasa is located 70 km west of Algiers. It is a serial property comprising three sites: two archaeological parks located in the vicinity of the present urban complex and the Royal Mauritanian Mausoleum, on the west Sahel plateau of Algiers, at 11 km south-east of Tipasa.​ ​ The archaeological site of Tipasa regroups one of the most extraordinary archaeological complexes of the Maghreb, and perhaps one which is most significant to the study of the contacts between the indigenous civilizations and the different waves of colonization from the 6th century B.C. to the 6th century A.D. This coastal city was first a Carthaginian trading centre, whose necropolis is one of the oldest and one of the most extensive of the Punic world (6th to 2nd century B.C.). During this period, Tipasa played the role of a maritime port of call, a place for commercial exchanges with the indigenous population. Numerous necropolis testify to the very varied types of burial and funerary practices that bear witness to the multicultural exchange of influences dating back to protohistoric times. The monumental, circular funerary building, called the Royal Mauritanian Mausoleum, associates a local architectural tradition of the basina type, to a style of stepped truncated roof covering, the result of the different contributions, notably Hellenistic and Pharaonic.​ ​ ​ ​ The Roman period is marked by a prestigious ensemble of buildings, comprising very diversified architectural typologies. From the 3rd to the 4th centuries A.D. a striking increase in Christianity is demonstrated by the multitude of religious buildings. Some are decorated with high quality mosaic pavings, illustrating scenes from daily life, or geometric patterns. The Vandal invasion of the 430's did not mark the definitive end of prosperity of Tipasa, but the town, reconquered by the Byzantines in 531, gradually fell into decline from the 6th century. ​ ​ Criterion (iii): Tipasa bears exceptional testimony to the Punic and Roman civilizations now disappeared.​ ​ Criterion (iv): The architectural and archaeological vestiges of Tipasa reflect in a significant manner the contacts between the indigenous civilizations and the Punic and Roman waves of colonization between the 6th century B.C. and the 6th century A.D.​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ 5. Hadrumetum​ ​ Hadrumetum, ancient Phoenician colony some 100 miles (160 km) south of Carthage, on the east coast of the Al-Hammāmāt Gulf in what is now Tunisia. Hadrumetum was one of the most important communities within the Carthaginian territory in northern Africa because of its location on the sea at the edge of the fertile Sahel region. In the Third Punic War (149–146 bc) Hadrumetum sided with Rome, and its citizens were rewarded with partial Roman citizenship. It supported Pompey in the civil war and was heavily fined by Caesar after his victory in the Battle of Thapsus (46 bc). It later received colonial rank under Trajan. The city was a centre for the administration of imperial estates in what is now the eastern part of Tunisia and became the capital of the province of Byzacenia, formed by Diocletian about ad 300. It was again important after the reconquest of Africa by Justinian I in 533, receiving the name Justinianopolis. Before the Arab conquest, the modern town of Sūsah arose on the site.​ ​ ​ ​ South America​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ 1. Caral​ ​ The remains of the main city of the Caral civilization, located in the Supe valley of Peru. It is considered the oldest city in the Americas, dating back to between 3000 and 1800 B.C. Caral is a UNESCO World Heritage site​ ​ ​ ​ 2. Machu Picchu​ ​ The ancient Inca citadel of Machu Picchu is located in the Andes Mountains of Peru. It was founded around 1450–1470 and abandoned around 1532–1565​ ​ ​ ​ 3. Chan Chan​ ​ The capital city of the Chimor kingdom, and the largest city in pre-Columbian South America. ​ ​ ​ ​ 4. Huaca Prieta​ ​ A permanent settlement on the coast of Peru, dating back to 4700 BC​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ 1. Caral​ ​ ​ ​ The 5000-year-old 626-hectare archaeological site of The Sacred City of Caral-Supe is situated on a dry desert terrace overlooking the green valley of the Supe river. It dates back to the Late Archaic Period of the Central Andes and is the oldest centre of civilization in the Americas. Exceptionally well-preserved, the site is impressive in terms of its design and the complexity of its architectural, especially its monumental stone and earthen platform mounts and sunken circular courts. One of 18 urban settlements situated in the same area, Caral features complex and monumental architecture, including six large pyramidal structures. A quipu (the knot system used in Andean civilizations to record information) found on the site testifies to the development and complexity of Caral society. The city’s plan and some of its components, including pyramidal structures and residence of the elite, show clear evidence of ceremonial functions, signifying a powerful religious ideology.​ ​ ​ ​ Caral is the origin of Andean culture. More than five thousand years old, Caral developed at the same time as other great cultures in Mesopotamia, Egypt and China. ​ ​ This sacred city is situated in the middle of the Supe Valley, amid fertile lands close to the sea, and was inhabited by skilled fishermen, farmers and expert seafarers. Among its many mud brick structures and circular plazas, six main pyramids once stood. ​ ​ ​ ​ Now a World Heritage Site, Caral was an imposing urban center, and its farming techniques and sustainable practices remain a reference point to this day.​ ​ ​ ​ ​  3.3. Prehistoric towns of Indus valley civilization​ ​ 3.3.1. The city of Harappa ​ ​ Harappa is an archaeological site in Punjab, Pakistan, about 24 kilometers (15 miles) west of Sahiwal.​ ​ ​ ​ Key Points​ ​ ​ ○​ The Indus Valley Civilization contained more than 1,000 cities and settlements. ​ ​ ○​ These cities contained well-organized wastewater drainage systems, trash collection systems, and possibly even public granaries and baths. ​ ​ ○​ Although there were large walls and citadels, there is no evidence of monuments, palaces, or temples. ​ ​ ○​ The uniformity of Harappan artifacts suggests some form of authority and governance to regulate seals, weights, and bricks. ​ ​ ​ Terms​ ​ urban planning​ ​ A technical and political process concerned with the use of land and design of the urban environment that guides and ensures the orderly development of settlements and communities.​ ​ granaries​ ​ A storehouse or room in a barn for threshed grain or animal feed.​ ​ citadels​ ​ A central area in a city that is heavily fortified.​ ​ Harappa and Mohenjo-daro​ ​ Two of the major cities of the Indus Valley Civilization during the Bronze Age.​ ​ ​ ​ By 2600 BCE, the small Early Harappan communities had become large urban centers. These cities include Harappa, Ganeriwala, and Mohenjo-daro in modern-day Pakistan, and Dholavira, Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi, Rupar, and Lothal in modern-day India. In total, more than 1,052 cities and settlements have been found, mainly in the general region of the Indus River and its tributaries. The population of the Indus Valley Civilization may have once been as large as five million.​ ​ ​ ​ The remains of the Indus Valley Civilization cities indicate remarkable organization; there were well-ordered wastewater drainage and trash collection systems, and possibly even public granaries and baths. Most city-dwellers were artisans and merchants grouped together in distinct neighborhoods. The quality of urban planning suggests efficient municipal governments that placed a high priority on hygiene or religious ritual.​ ​ ​ ​ Infrastructure​ ​ Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, and the recently, partially-excavated Rakhigarhi demonstrate the world’s first known urban sanitation systems. The ancient Indus systems of sewerage and drainage developed and used in cities throughout the Indus region were far more advanced than any found in contemporary urban sites in the Middle East, and even more efficient than those in many areas of Pakistan and India today. Individual homes drew water from wells, while waste water was directed to covered drains on the main streets. Houses opened only to inner courtyards and smaller lanes, and even the smallest homes on the city outskirts were believed to have been connected to the system, further supporting the conclusion that cleanliness was a matter of great importance.​ ​ ​ ​ Architecture​ ​ Harappans demonstrated advanced architecture with dockyards, granaries, warehouses, brick platforms, and protective walls. These massive walls likely protected the Harappans from floods and may have dissuaded military conflicts. Unlike Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt, the inhabitants of the Indus Valley Civilization did not build large, monumental structures. There is no conclusive evidence of palaces or temples (or even of kings, armies, or priests), and the largest structures may be granaries. The city of Mohenjo-daro contains the “Great Bath,” which may have been a large, public bathing and social area.​ ​ ​  ​ Authority and Governance​ ​ Archaeological records provide no immediate answers regarding a center of authority, or depictions of people in power in Harappan society. The extraordinary uniformity of Harappan artifacts is evident in pottery, seals, weights, and bricks with standardized sizes and weights, suggesting some form of authority and governance.​ ​ Over time, three major theories have developed concerning Harappan governance or system of rule. The first is that there was a single state encompassing all the communities of the civilization, given the similarity in artifacts, the evidence of planned settlements, the standardized ratio of brick size, and the apparent establishment of settlements near sources of raw material. The second theory posits that there was no single ruler, but a number of them representing each of the urban centers, including Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, and other communities. Finally, experts have theorized that the Indus Valley Civilization had no rulers as we understand them, with everyone enjoying equal status.​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ 3.3.2. Mohenjo Daro​ ​ Mohenjo-daro is an archaeological site in Larkana District, Sindh, Pakistan. Built c. 2500 BCE, it was the largest settlement of the ancient Indus Valley Civilization, and one of the world's earliest major cities, contemporaneous with the civilizations of ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia.​ ​ ​ ○​ Discovered in 1922, Mohenjo-Daro is located in Sindh province in Pakistan. It was once a metropolis of great importance, forming the heart of the Indus Valley Civilization with Harappa (discovered in 1923 in the southern Punjab), Kot Diji (Sindh) and older Mehrgarh (Balochistan). Mohenjo-Daro is considered as one of the most important ancient cities of the ancient world. It had mud and baked bricks’ buildings, an elaborate covered drainage system, a large state granary, a spacious pillared hall, a College of Priests, a palace and a citadel. ​ ​ ○​ Mohenjo-Daro (540 kilometers from Karachi) was the center of an ancient Indus Valley civilization, and perhaps its capital. The largest of several wealthy cities in the Indus Valley, Mohenjo-Daro covered about one square mile, only a small potion of which has been excavated. A man-made, plateau-like hill, known as the citadel, was on one side of the city. About 300  structures have been excavated there. Mohenjo-Daro means "Mound of the Dead." The plateau-like citadel is believed to be have been the place where the rulers of the kingdom lived. The common people lived in the flatlands. At its height Mohenjo-Daro was home to maybe 80,000 people. ​ ​ ○​ Founded perhaps 6000 years ago, Mohenjo-Daro flourished between 2500 and 2000 B.C. along the irrigated banks of the Indus River when the climate wasn't as harsh as it is today. Only Egypt can lay claim to a civilization that was as old and as large. ​ ​ ○​ Moenjodaro was built entirely of unbaked brick. The acropolis, set on high embankments, the ramparts, and the lower town, which is laid out according to strict rules, provide evidence of an early system of town planning. Mohenjodaro is the most ancient and best-preserved urban ruin on the Indian subcontinent, and exercised a considerable influence on the subsequent development of urbanization on the Indian peninsula. ​ ​ ○​ Of this vast urban ruin of Moenjodaro, only about one-third has been reveal by excavation since 1922. The foundations of the site are threatened by saline action due to a rise of the water table of the Indus River. This was the subject of a UNESCO international campaign in the 1970s, which partially mitigated the attack on the prehistoric mud-brick buildings. ​ ​ 3.4.1. Babylon​ ​ Babylon, Ancient Middle Eastern city. The city’s ruins are located about 55 mi (89 km) south of Baghdad, near the modern city of Al-Ḥillah, Iraq. Babylon was one of the most famous cities in antiquity. Probably first settled in the 3rd millennium bc, it came under the rule of the Amorite kings around 2000 bc. It became the capital of Babylonia and was the chief commercial city of the Tigris and Euphrates river system. Destroyed by Sennacherib in 689 bc, it was later rebuilt. It attained its greatest glory as capital of the Neo-Babylonian empire under Nebuchadrezzar II (605– 561 bc). ​ ​ ​ ​ Alexander the Great, who took the city in 331 bc, died there. Evidence of its topography comes from excavations, cuneiform texts, and descriptions by the Greek historian Herodotus. Most of the ruins are from the city built by Nebuchadrezzar. The largest city in the world at the time, it contained many temples, including the great temple of Marduk with its associated ziggurat, which was apparently the basis for the  story of the Tower of Babel. The Hanging Gardens, a simulated hill of vegetation-clad terracing, was one of the Seven Wonders of the World​ ​ ​ ​ The ancient city of Babylon in Iraq was known for its architectural splendor, including: ​ ​ ​ ○​ The Ishtar Gate: The main entrance to the city, decorated with glazed brick reliefs of bulls, dragons, and lions. The gate was over 38 feet high and led to the Processional Way, a half-mile decorated corridor used in religious rituals. The remains of the gate and Processional Way are housed in Berlin's Pergamon Museum. ​ ​ ○​ The Etemenanki: A massive ziggurat that is believed to be the origin of the biblical Tower of Babel. ​ ​ ○​ The Hanging Gardens: One of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, which featured lush vegetation and waterfalls. ​ ​ ○​ Temples: Large structures made of crude brick, supported by buttresses. ​ ​ ○​ Walls: Brilliantly colored and sometimes plated with zinc or gold. ​ ​ ○​ Homes: Mud and baked brick houses with up to nine rooms, centered on an open-air paved courtyard. Some houses had brick staircases that led to a second-story or rooftop. The Babylonians also made great use of relief in their works. The use of brick led to the early development of the pilaster and column, and of frescoes and enameled tiles​ ​ ​