Migration and Population PDF

Migration and Population 8 Nov 2024 1. Some foundational concepts related to migration and population 2. Policy changes and the social implications 3. Ethnic composition (Extra) Focus of Today  Population “[A]n aggregate of indiv...

Migration and Population 8 Nov 2024 1. Some foundational concepts related to migration and population 2. Policy changes and the social implications 3. Ethnic composition (Extra) Focus of Today  Population “[A]n aggregate of individuals which conform to a given definition. This definition is ordinarily at least spatial and temporal in specificity.” Part 1 Norman B. Ryder (1965)  Population size is affected by Migration Migration: the movement of people from one territory to another territory on a permanent or semi-permanent basis Part 1 John J. Macionis (2017)  Migration: the Two Basic Forms Immigration: the movement of people into a specified territory Emigration: the movement of people out of a specified territory Part 1 John J. Macionis (2017)  Internal International In-migration Immigration Out-migration Emigration Return migration Remigration Part 1 Part 1  Hong Kong as an Immigrant City? Why and How? A Case Study of the Mainland Immigrants from 1842 to 1980s + 1980s to 2000s Part 2  What is Today’s Class About? The Gradual Development of 1) the Concept of “Hong Kong” Identity Formation 2) A Sense of Belonging through the Case of Immigration (Policies, Practices, Discourses, etc.) Part 2 Three Stages 1. Prior to 1950s 2. 1950s to 1960s 3. 1970s (until 1980s) + 4. 1980s to 2000s  Unrestricted Movement across China before 1950s (from 1842) Part 2.1  1850–1864 1931 Taiping Rebellion 2nd Sino-Japanese War / Japanese Invasion e.g., from around 100,000 in 1845 (and only 23,817 in HK Island) to from 850,000 in 1931 to 1,639,000 165,000 in 1861 in 1941 Growth: 100,000 in 1937; 500,000 in 1938; 150,000 in 1939 Chinese Hsinhai/Xinhai Revolution from 300,000 in 1901 to 625,000 in 1921 1911 Examples of the Waves of Immigration from mainland China Part 2.1 Albert Chen (1988)  01 02 03 Hong Kong as a Hong Kong was not Hong Kong was shelter, these their “home” and also the immigrants were they were oriented “emigration port” considered as towards the for emigrating to “sojourners” (David Mainland (e.g., other parts of the Faure 1997) refugees?) world, e.g., 1850s- 1860s Hong Kong’s Role for the Immigrants? Part 2.1  the legitimate emigration port to the restless events: shortage of arable natural disasters and U.S. (e.g., the Opium Wars and farmland famine California Gold Rush Taiping Rebellion or mining) Hong Kong: well- $26 USD per month in developed emigration the US (promise), the “Gold Mountain” ports, and compared with $1 image “immigration-friendly” USD in China regulations – Passenger Act in HK And why emigrate through Hong Kong? Part 2.1 Jack Hang-tat Leong (2019)  the legitimate emigration port to the restless events: shortage of arable natural disasters and U.S. (e.g., the Opium Wars and farmland famine California Gold Rush Taiping Rebellion or mining) Hong Kong: well- $26 USD per month in developed emigration the US (promise), the “Gold Mountain” ports, and compared with $1 image “immigration-friendly” USD in China regulations – Passenger Act in HK And why emigrate through Hong Kong? Part 2.1 Jack Hang-tat Leong (2019)  Freedom of Movement as the defining feature (early colonial period) mainly in terms of the Chinese people No official “border” control that separated Hong Kong from mainland China No passport was required for the residents to enter or leave Part 2.1  But does it mean that there was no restriction at all? Certainly not. “persons who... become a source of danger to the peace, order, and good government of the colony” Banishment Ordinance of 1903 “large proportion of the immigrant population which is either incapable of being absorbed into useful occupation for any length of time or has no such desire” Deportation of Aliens Bill of 1949 Part 2.1  Travellers Restriction Ordinance (1915) Registration of Persons Ordinance (1916) Passport Ordinance (1923) Exemption: “persons of Chinese race” Part 2.1  Immigration and Passports Ordinance (1934) Registration of Persons Ordinance (1934) Every alien, “other than an alien of Chinese race,” has to register with the police when entering into the “colony.” Part 2.1  In other words… George Beer Endacott (1958:65): “incessant coming and going was a feature of the island's life from the start.” Part 2.1  How did the colonial government justify its rather “free” immigration control? Part 2.1  The Colonial Government’s Response: 1937: around 1,200,000 1945: around 600,000 (expulsions by the Japanese) 1946: around 1,600,000 (Hong Kong Annual Report 1956) *Rough though these numbers may seem, they were the “data” adopted by the colonial government in the 1956 annual report, showing the approximate population trend during that period of time Part 2.1  The Colonial Government’s Response: “In the years before the Pacific War it was the policy, indeed almost a tradition, to allow freedom of movement to Chinese across the border with China.” (Hong Kong Annual Report 1956) Part 2.1  the “entrepôt” thesis: the need of territorial ECONOMIC fluidity e.g., buyers and itinerant traders across China? But why? the indispensable issues of “affinities”: the Trade, Affinity, and significance of cultural SOCIAL Refuge: continuity Familial ties (Canton / Guangxi), Custom, Education Three “Reasons” for Unrestricted Movement Policy / Tack? the “image” or the “branding” of the “colony”: the objective of POLITICAL establishing political distinction Part 2.1 Agnes Ku (2004)  1950s to 1960s (by 1971): Changing Strategy from acceptance, through control, to regularization Part 2.2  Around 1957-58 Political Events such as the Great Leap Forward, Civil War, Post-War, and Cold followed by several years of War (international instability & economic instability; the “Hong uncertainty) Kong Dream”? 1945–1952 1949 1958 1967–1976 After 1949, 10,000 “refugees” Cultural Revolution per week (most were the people with a Nationalist/KMT background) Political and social events affecting the Mainland emigration, and Hong Kong immigration Again, push or pull factors? John P. Burns (1987) Part 2.2  Immigrants’ Attitudes towards “Hong Kong”? “Refugee Mentality” Part 2.2  “a borrowed time, a borrowed place” “Refugee Richard Hughes (1976) Mentality”? “utlitarianistic Hong Kong Studies familism” on 1940s–1960s Lau Siu Kai (1984) 1) short-term horizon 2) social and political stability 3) traditional Chinese values: familial interest 4) low level of social and political participation Part 2.2  “Little Rascals” / 小流氓 “Refugee (later known as “Oriental Heroes” / 龍虎門) Mentality”? Tony Wong 黃玉郎 (1969) 1) immigrants as characters, Also in public e.g., the protagonist Tiger Wong in the 1st chapter discourses, e.g., 2) socio-economic problems, popular culture and living condition – e.g., squatter areas as the first “scene” 3) limited law enforcement and extra-judiciary actions Part 2.2  from acceptance to “control” “human problem, a problem of ordinary men, women and children.” Alexander Grantham / 葛量洪 the 22nd Governor of Hong Kong, in his appearance in the Legislative Council (1957) Part 2.2  Permit from the Immigration Officer All non-British “aliens” Immigration Control Chinese people: no exception Ordinance (1949) Stricter treatment of illegal The Turning Point immigrants (i.e., = committing offence, and lead to expulsion) Quota system in 1950 The 1950s (Guangdong natives exempted) Part 2.2  Compulsory registration system Registration of Persons Identity card issuing system Fingerprint Ordinance The 1st time in legal vs. illegal Photograph (1949) history Everyone, including the Chinese (who were exempted in the past) The Turning Point Violation: a fine not extending $2,000 The 1950s and imprisonment Part 2.2  Extra Registration system and identity card as a form of Social Control? “the attempts by certain people or groups in society to control the behaviors of other individuals and groups in order to increase the likelihood that they will conform to established norms or laws.” William J. Chambliss and Daina S. Eglitis (2015:157) Part 2.2  Extra Registration system and identity card as a form of Social Control? Informal social control: “the unofficial means through which deviance is discouraged in everyday interactions.” e.g., small communities, strong tie Formal social control: “official attempts to discourage certain behaviors and visibly punish others.” e.g., growing cities, density, and individualization William J. Chambliss and Daina S. Eglitis (2015:157) Part 2.2  Late 1950s to 1960s: A Short Summary of the Situation Intensified control at the beginning: a clear legal definition of “illegal immigrant” emerged From “black characters in repatriated the existing illegal immigrants & Exclusionary black abodes” curbed new arrivals to Inclusionary Distribution of identity cards (1963- (Regularization) 1967) - Found that 236,009 identity cards were distributed to illegal immigrants by 1968 Resuming an open-door policy (1967) - not be repatriated but required to report to the Part 2.2 authorities to obtain entry permits  What characterized this approach (e.g., established but not strictly implemented?) “Humanitarianism”: 1) Social Integration 2) Practical Considerations 3) Political Reasons & International Politics Part 2.2 Agnes Ku (2004)  Social Integration Domestic political and public appeals to absorb illegal immigrants into Hong Why Kong society “Humanita Public opinion (e.g., the ex-refugees’ rianism” resistance) Obstructing police efforts to repatriate illegal immigrants Voicing for humanity / benevolence outside the law (or was it also a political propaganda?) Part 2.2 Agnes Ku (2004)  “It was a feeling of desperation and sadness[;]... they begged me to try to do something to prevent the Hong Kong authorities from stopping these people come across.” Bishop Edward Ernest Swanstrom, representing Hong Kong at a U.S. Senate hearing in 1962 Part 2.2  Practical Consideration “Settled residence”: good order “Humanita (economic & social) Again, the “black characters in black rianism” abodes” problems Immigrants as assets for industrial development (Hong Kong had to develop its external trade) Part 2.2 Agnes Ku (2004)  “If they have not committed any crime within a reasonable time after registration, they should be given identity cards so that they may become lawful residents. This is in the interest of social stability and humanity” From an unofficial legislator, Part 2.2 Yu-Chuen Tse (謝雨川), in 1967  Political Reasons & International Politics The U.S. “Humanita “Cold War Mentality” & ideological rianism” struggles unwilling to see repatriation aid for resettlement Part 2.2 Agnes Ku (2004)  Political Reasons & International Politics Britain “Humanita blurring social distinction between refugees and local rianism” residents; avoiding the “responsibilities” of settling the refugees – e.g., onward emigration? Part 2.2 Agnes Ku (2004)  “[Refugees] believe that home is somewhere other than where they are now... there is clear evidence that the aim of most immigrants is to join their family, clansmen and people of their own race, language and dialect in Hong Kong, and that they do not Claude Bramall Burgess 白嘉時 in many cases desire to go then Colonial Secretary further afield.” United Nations High Commissioner for Part 2.2 Refugees 1960  Her Majesty’s Government are unable to accept further groups of refugees for permanent residence in any numbers. If the point is raised the delegation should remind the Committee that Great Britain is an overcrowded island.” United Nations High Commissioner for Part 2.2 Refugees 1962  Re-problematization of Illegal Immigrant Status Early 1970s and Late 1970s Part 2.3  Context of the Tightened Immigration Control The discourse of the “people problem” has been planted before the 70s: Excessive population (especially the massive influx of illegal immigrants) as “social evils” Resources & Employment Ideological Welfare Threats e.g., Housing Conflicts Demands Part 2.2 Agnes Ku (2004)  Shep Kip Mei Fire in 1953 Part 2.2  Context of the Tightened Immigration Control The colonial government’s approach of handling the “human problems” : Reluctant to provide expensive public services maintaining financial autonomy from London (e.g., since 1958) Part 2.2 Chi-kwan Mark (2007)  Context of the Tightened Immigration Control Immigration Control as “the Way Out”? FROM an “open door” policy in 1967 (and rather a rather lenient approach beforehand) TO the gradually tightened immigration control Part 2.2 Albert Chen (1988)  Hong Kong Belongers British subjects born in Hong Kong Chinese Residents Immigration Non-British subjects who were wholly or partly Chinese, residing Hong Kong for a Ordinance continuous period of not less than 7 years (1971) Resident United Kingdom Belongers Defining the Different Citizen of the United Kingdom and Colonies, Categories of residing Hong Kong for a continuous period Hong Kong Residents of not less than 7 years & the 1st Discourse of Local Belonging Others State Building and None of the above, but with permit Identity Making? Part 2.3 The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly (1979) 《網中人》TVB drama series Ah-Chan (mainlander): the younger brother who was a mainland immigrant, was portrayed as rude, ignorant, selfish, money - minded, and uncivilized Ching Wai (Hong Kong people): the elder brother, who was born and raised in HK, was highly educated, hard-working, well - mannered, cultivated, and honest 1972 Keep Hong Kong Clean Hong Kong Festival (1969, 1971, 1973)  Reach Base / Touch Base Policy (1974- 1980) 抵壘政策 Illegal immigrants reached the urban area → found proper accommodation → report to Late 1970s the registration centre to register legal resident → permitted to stay Fully problematizing Swimming, crossing hills, etc. “illegal immigrants” from the Mainland Part 2.3  Instant Repatriation upon Arrest (1980) - Reach-base policy cancelled 即捕即解 - Migrants: threats to the locals? Housing, education, medical & health services, transport, etc. - Identity checks (police patrolling on streets for 4 months) Late 1970s - Arrested and repatriated all illegal migrants - Immigration (Amendment)(No.2) Ordinance: a) Carrying ID cards (aged 15 or above) Fully problematizing b) Prohibiting employment of illegal immigrants “illegal immigrants” from the Mainland Part 2.3  “The severe problems brought about by illegal immigration are well known. What has to be done is quite clear: but in taking this essential, no longer avoidable, action which we propose today, let us be clear also the penalties which we - as a community - have to pay, the frustrations and problems with which we shall be presenting ourselves, are very considerable too. It is a choice of evils. In many ways the Hong Kong of the future will not be the sort of Hong Kong we all have known until today.” by the then-Chief Secretary in 1980 Part 2.3  1979 China’s Open-door Policy & 1997 Handover - Investment in Special Economic Zones (since 1979) & Economic Restructuring in Hong Kong? 1980s-2020s - Continuous movement of people - Work & study Cross-Border Movement - Cross-border marriage and family reunion - Retirement, lower cost, shopping - Home Return Permit Part 2.4 Credits: Our China Story & Reddit (PassportPorn)  One-Way Permits Mainland citizens permitted to enter and remain in Hong Kong (handled and issued solely by the PRC authorities, and also agreed by the colonial Hong Kong’s 1980s-2020s immigration authorities) Cross-Border Movement 5 Categories: couple reunion; children with unsupported parents in HK; unsupported parents in ML; unsupported children, and others Part 2.4 Downes (2017)  One-Way Permits 75 per day in 1982 (subquotas for children and spouse); 1980s-2020s 105 per day in 1993 (a subquota for dependent children and spouses separated Cross-Border Movement for at least 10 years); 150 per day in 1995 (a sub quota for all children and spouses separated for at least 10 years) Part 2.4 Downes (2017)  The 150 Daily Permits Part 2.4 Downes (2017) Part 2.4  One-Way Permits Population growth Demographics 1980s-2020s Majority: aged between 25 and 44 til 2013 Cross-Border Movement Education level: university graduates (8% of the population aged 15 or above in 2003 to 18% in 2013) Part 2.4