World History since the 15th C - Exam Review PDF

World History since the 15th C - Exam Review Unit One: World History 1450-1650 CE Worldviews (maps - problems) ​ Not to scale ○​ Distorts size, shape, distance, and direction ​ It is impossible to make a flat map of a sphere world ​ Maps creat...

World History since the 15th C - Exam Review Unit One: World History 1450-1650 CE Worldviews (maps - problems) ​ Not to scale ○​ Distorts size, shape, distance, and direction ​ It is impossible to make a flat map of a sphere world ​ Maps creations can be biased ○​ Ex. making one place appear bigger to assert a perception of dominance ​ Perspective and proportion in maps contain unconscious bias ○​ Political maps can show power relationships (empires, annexed territories) ​ Past education of Canadians supports a colonial narrative that must be dismantled ​ Discounts Indigenous knowledge ​ Creates artificial boundaries Indigenous Worldview (Turtle Island) & Settler Relationships (Wampum Belts) ​ The oldest treaty relationship between Indigenous Peoples and European settlers was the Two Row Wampum ○​ The treaty was made in 1613 between the Dutch and Haudanusnee ​ Relationship between Haudenosaunee and Dutch settlers in the Wampum Belt: boat analogy ○​ Indigenous peoples have their own canoe and steering it and the Europeans (Dutch) also have their own while steering but do not intersect or interact with each other ​ The Dutch agreed to the terms of the Treaty because it was a political and military alliance they were entering ​ Two-Row Wampum Belt ○​ Purple and white belt with beads ○​ Three rows of white beads → symbolize peace, friendship and respect ○​ Purple represents two paths or two vessels travelling down the same river ○​ One row symbolizes Indigenous Peoples with their laws and customs, other, European ​ The Wampum Belt served as a template for future treaties as it was the framework and had the same spirit as the original wampum belt. Helps to avoid overlapping/interfering ​ It is a long-living treaty (continues into the future) ​ The wampum belt is a visual device in which memory is kept alive  ○​ The wampum has its own power ​ They are made of quahog clam shells that are purple and black and whelk shells that are white ​ The shell is able to retain the word spoken over it and then passed from gen to generation ​ The white whelk shell is a symbol of power and peace (all good things) and the purple/black quahog is the opposite, they are kind of enemies of each other but, the whelk can defeat the quahog. White shell overcomes purple shell ​ One spoon Wampum Belt symbolizes the first treaty made in North America ○​ Made between all the native nations before Europeans arrived ○​ It represents peace, unity and harmony with a dark figure representing the bowl ​ Studying Wampum belts as primary sources deconstruct colonial narratives: ○​ Gains insight of both sides of the treaty, not only the white Europeans ○​ Focuses and portrays their beliefs and life ○​ Shows commitment to wanting to learn more Mali & Benin Empire (Catalan Map) ​ Mansa Musa was featured at the center of the map showing his importance to Africa as the center of the economy ​ The Spanish recognized he was an important trader of Africa ​ Recognizes Europe’s understanding of Mali’s importance → economy/trade ​ Detailed medieval world map ​ Depicted regions like Europe, North Africa, and Asia ​ Highlights key trade routes, cities, and rulers, such as Mansa Musa of Mali, reflecting global wealth and power. ​ Showcased the most advanced geographical knowledge of its time ​ Symbolized knowledge from Christian, Muslim, and Jewish sources ​ Key role in shaping medieval European navigation and understanding of the world. Inca Civilization ​ They were expert builders ○​ Stones cut in perfect trapezoids – bounced during the earthquake and fell back into place without mortar ​ Water “features” were incorporated into the building of Machu Pichu  ○​ A mountain spring ○​ Water fountains with spots created to fill clay jugs easily ○​ Water canals also show planning – built away from possible pollution ○​ The emperor’s residence has evidence of a bathing area (so it does not pollute) ​ Machu Pichu was a PLANNED city ○​ Terraces for growing food ○​ Stones that were bounced into place ○​ Rope → helped build ○​ Water channels ​ Two technologies not developed by the Incas were wheels and mortar ​ Incas were polytheistic ○​ Gods were reflective of the environment ○​ It was a crater, God ○​ Pachamama → Mother Earth, goddess of harvest and fertility ​ Incan Kings, or Sapa Incas, wore nose rings as a symbol of their status and divine connection ​ It represented their authority and the wealth of the empire ​ Gold and silver were highly valued in Incan culture ○​ Materials were often used in jewelry to signify the power and prestige of the wear ​ The nose ring could also have spiritual significance, symbolizing a connection to the Gods and the Incan belief in the divine right to rule Spanish Colonization ​ Pizzaro was a Spanish explorer who set out to explore Peru and was looking for gold ○​ He had a limited army ​ Pizzaro invited Atahualpa to dinner – his real intention was to capture him ​ At the meeting, Pizzaro and his men capture Atahualpa and massacred about 6000 Incas ​ Atahualpa was put on trial (for killing his advisory) and sentenced to execution IMPACTS OF THE SPANISH COLONIZATION ON THE INCAS ​ The Spanish rule of the Incas was brutal ​ Gold and silver artifacts were melted down (worth millions of dollars) ​ Lands were seized to make room for Spanish settlers ​ Incas were forced to pay tribute (land, money, harvest as a form of payment)  ​ Roads and irrigation projects fell into disrepair ​ Working classes were forced to provide labour for the Spanish ​ Europeans brought diseases with them that killed thousands (90% of Incas died within the first years of Spanish arrival) ​ Any rebellion was met with great violence East & West Exploration – Doctrine of Discovery ​ This discovery granted catholic explorers full authority to convert, subjugate, remediate, and forcefully remove Indigenous peoples from their land and if they refused, they were authorized to enslave and kill them as a way to save their souls ​ It was only rescinded in April 2023, by the Vatican Treaty of Tordesillas ​ Recognizing the potential for conflict between two Catholic countries, the papacy forged the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) ​ Portugal would continue to explore west of the line of longitude that ran through the Atlantic Ocean and Spain would explore east of the line of longitude (the Americans with the exception of Brazil ​ Very quickly, exploration turned to settlement, to secure the raw materials making Spain and Portugal wealthy. It was the beginning of European oppression and genocide of Indigenous populations. Portuguese Spice Trade ​ Spice term applied to all kinds of exotic natural products ​ Mainly used to flavour food, used to treat illness, show wealth ​ Put on tables as a fashionable addition ​ Black pepper – treatment for asthma ​ Europeans buned ambegis to ward of fatal diseases Motivation for spain and portugal to seek out the east ​ Because they were in conflict with Islamic politics, so not going at them they could tade gold without their enemy ​ When Constantinople fell, they had to find other trade roots which were more expensive  ​ Population getting bigger in Europe, they were looking for ways to import crops Primogenitor - giving the land to the first-born son ​ They wanted to get direct access to the spices w/o paying through the Arabic merchants ​ Helped reduce trade deficit The Renaissance – in Florence (Medici) & Rome, everyday life Medici ​ They lived in Florence ​ The Medici were not a royal blood family ​ They were bankers ( where they got their money) ​ They were the rulers for 60 years in Florence ​ First book in Italy ​ They were patrons of the arts – they brought artists to Italy** ​ Catherine de Medici married the king Henry II of France Rome - Everyday Life ​ Feudalism ○​ Land ownership, social status, economics ​ The Great Chain of Being ○​ Social inequality ○​ Everything and everyone had a place in society ○​ Ex. women deferred to men ​ ⅓ of people in 5 years were affected by the Bubonic Plague ○​ Bubo was a name for boils ○​ It affected everyone equally  ○​ The black death upended the social structure because it disoriented people and shook their beliefs (why and how would god do this?) ​ The life expectancy of women was generally short ○​ During childbirth, their life expectancy was 1/7 ​ A birthing tray was a tray to put gifts on (sweets, drinks) to give to new (wealthy) mothers as a gift ​ Disease, famine, war and fire were the natural events that made life dangerous ​ Rapiers (fencing swords) were used as occasional street dual and fashion accessory ​ Three main tasks of religion ○​ Providence (God’s justice on earth) ○​ Salvation (obtaining a place in the kingdom of God ○​ Community (upholding religious holidays, rites of passage, etc) ​ The honour code bred more violence rather than maintaining peace, man must use revenge for a wronged loved one and defend women's honour ​ Patriarchal ○​ Directed by a male ​ Primogeniture ○​ Only the first son inherited the family property ​ Dowry ○​ The bride's family “paid” means family (money, food) for keeping their daughter ​ Household ○​ Immediate family members, extended family, servants, farm labourers ​ Two military innovations were Gun powder which changed fighting strategies and Star-shaped fortresses (that could deflect and absorb cannon fire, eliminating the blind spot of the round tower) Leonardo Da Vinci – “Renaissance Man” ​ Excelled in many fields such as art and science ​ His curiosity led him to discover many things such as flight, painting, anatomy, etc ​ Limited education for a “genius” ​ Didn’t know Latin ​ **** Systematic reasoning, observation, experimentation**** ​ Focus on flight - birds, humans, airplane, helicopter  ​ Anatomy - art & science (dissected, drew very detailed diagrams (of heart, heart valve (model), these are still used today ​ His notebooks included many diagrams and writing (backwards) ​ Interested in water and machines that use water ​ Last Supper - Jesus in center, disciples in groups of three – showing human interactions between the friends, 3D – perspective also used ​ “The Grotesques” – shows the aging process, drawn from the bone, and skull outwards to the facial features to combine knowledge of anatomy with art ​ Mona Lisa – commissioned, human qualities (eyes, mouth) ​ Art- new techniques (perspective, humanist style, religious and non-religious — science (anatomy) ​ Science — direct observation rather than accepting religious truths (experimentation vs passive acceptance of “truths”) ​ Inventions – using technology (advanced tech that didn't yet exist) to create/help individuals navigate the environment with advantage The Reformation – Luther, Henry VIII - Church of England Martin Luther ​ He gave up his law career to become a monk ​ Pope Leo launched a sale of indulgences (leftover gods works of saints that one could buy to get to heaven) ​ Indulgences set off the reformation. In 1517 Luther posted his “95 Theses” ​ In 1520, the pope issued a “bull” (papal order) excommunicating Luther if he would not submit ​ Luther burned the bull. He refused to submit, even in front of the Emperor of Germany, Charles V “Here I stand, I cannot do otherwise” ​ He created Protestantism Henry VIII ​ He wanted a divorce from his wife in order to marry Anne Boleyn ​ The pope said no but he ignored this, broke away from the church and married Boelyn ​ He declared supreme authority as a ruler of England – king over pope ​ This was the beginning of the Church of England – Anglicanism The Scientific Revolution Gaileleo ​ Created the telescope  ​ He saw that the universe was heliocentric (Sun-centered) and was gathering evidence to support copernicus belief ​ Pope put copernicus’s book on the ban index, order galileo not to study ​ Galileo wrote a book- two chief systems of the world-referring science and religion ​ He was brought before the inquisition and tried for heresy ​ He was ban to house and had to recant his beliefs (public apology) ​ This was controversy with the church as it showed that he was challemging what the church was teaching showing that they were not the only one’s with knowledge China – Emperor, government, Forbidden City, Eunuchs, Trade Government ​ In 1380, the government structure was changed to make it more efficient and accountable. Before, the different government departments reported to a central agency called the Gand Secretariat. But after the change, each department started reporting directly to the emperor instead of going through the middle agency. Forbidden City ​ It was enormous, it covered areas of 178 acres, including 90 courtyards and 980 total buildings ​ Served as a fortress to protect the emperor and his family, it is surrounded by a 26 feet high wall and a 170 feeibinat wide wall ​ Each corner of the place has a tall guard tower where guards used to keep watch for enemies and assassins ​ Government functionaries and even the imperial family were permitted only limited access; the emperor alone could enter any section at will ​ The buildings all faced south which stood for holiness, They also faced away from the north which symbolized the enemies of the Chinese, cold winds and evil ​ The roofs of the buildings in the city were made with yellow tiles. Yellow was the exclusive colour of the emperor and symbolized his ultimate power ​ The numbers nine and five are often used because they represent the majesty of the emperor Eunuchs ​ Often acquired as children from border regions and served as trusted servants to the emperor. ​ Their role primarily involved serving the women of the royal palace, as they couldn't father children or seduce women  ​ Only the emperor was allowed to interact with males until adulthood then they were let off, and any unauthorized male entry into the palace was punishable by death Unit Two: World History 1650-1789 CE Absolutism (Louis XIV – Palace of Versailles, “l’etat, c’est moi”, Divine Right of Kings Louis XIV ​ Was an absolute ruler as he completely ruled all aspects of France ​ French lore has it that he said “L’etat c’est moi”. Unlikely that the king actually said this but it reinforced how he had ruled ​ He was everything to France ​ Known as “Le Roi Soleil” – The sun king ○​ Reference to the idea of heliocentricism → The king is the centre of all decisions/state/religion in France (much like the sun is the center of the solar system) ​ There were no elected officials… he appointed people who were not the best advisors so he would look bright ​ The king moved the bedroom to the centre of the Palace of Versailles to keep watch/control over all nobles/advisors etc who lived there ​ He revoked the power from the pope and then returned it to show he was head of France with more authority → he also made roman catholicism a state religion ​ Even the natural environment controlled at Palace – Topiaries (sculpted bushes) ​ Control over the military → put in place (uniform, medical corps, fed them) creates unity, absolute loyalty to King Palace of Versailles ​ 900 people lived in the palace ​ Took 20 years to build ​ Hall of mirrors ​ They had to bow to the king's dinner ​ There was fruit from around the world that showed their power/mercantilism ​ Dress code and good manners were important – all based on class systems (lower classes had to respect upper classes) ​ The gardens were all Louis's attempt to control nature (all shapes or had patterns of geometry) The divine right of kings ​ Kings derived their authority directly from God, rather than from the consent of the people or any earthly authority. According to this belief, a monarch was God's appointed ruler and, as such, had absolute power over their kingdom The Enlightenment – what was it? (individualism, democracy, freedom, capitalism & equality) Philosophers – Hobbes (transition), Locke, Rousseau, Smith Enlightened Despotism – Catherine the Great ​ When the despot (monarch) is enlightened ​ Catherine the Great was very close to several leading Enlightenment philosophers, especially Voltaire and Diderot from France. These philosophers believed that rulers should use their power to improve society by promoting reason, justice, and fairness. Catherine admired these ideas and was seen as an enlightened ruler in the West because she tried to apply some of these Enlightenment principles in Russia. ​ Catherine created a Legislative Commission (a sort of advisory group) to help reform Russia. The commission’s job was to: ○​ Create new laws: They worked on a new code for how criminal and civil cases (legal issues) would be handled in Russia. ○​ Understand the people’s problems: The commission listened to the issues and hardships faced by the people of Russia, so they could address them in the new laws. ​ Catherine declared that all people should be equal under the law, meaning that no one should be treated unfairly based on their status, wealth, or class. Transatlantic Slave Trade ​ The first Europeans to capture and enslave African People were the Portuguese ​ The Spanish began transporting enslaved African Peoples in the early 1500s ​ They made them slaves to dig for silver and gold and many died from smallpox ​ To replace lost workers, the Spanish and Portuguese began importing enslaved African Peoples ​ By the mid-1600s, the slave trade was dominated by the Dutch and Britain ​ Eventually, many enslaved peoples were also sent to the American Colonies ​ As many as 28 million men, women and children were taken from Africa during the slave trade ​ The enormity and brutality of the slave trade continue to impact people today through historical trauma and continued racial injustice ​ The transatlantic slave trade was also known as the “Middle Passage” ​ It included ○​ Being taken captive in Africa boarding the slave ship being sold as a slave in the “New World” ​ This brutal journey was dehumanizing and many African people died along the way  ​ Dehumanizing ○​ A person's identity is taken (name, culture, language, home) ○​ A person’s dignity is taken (disrespected, abused, tortured, killed) ○​ A person’s human connections are taken (family, work, friends) ○​ A person’s sole is crushed ​ Along the West Coast of Africa, “slave” forts were built to house captured peoples before their cross-Atlantic journey ○​ Dungeons – male and female, means of control ○​ No window ○​ Clothes were removed ○​ Armed guards ○​ European oversees lived in nice quarters above the dungeon ​ There were more people who had gotten onto the ships to be transported as slaves as compared to off it – so many people died ​ Conditions on the ship ○​ Enslaved African peoples were packed into hot cramped spaces beneath the deck of the ship ○​ Women, men and children were separated – a form of control ○​ Men were kept shackled (handcuffed on pairs by their wrists with iron leg rings around their ankles) ○​ Only room to lie down – could not sit up ○​ No sanitation → disease spreads quickly ○​ Trauma and fear – left many unable to eat (diet, biscuit, yam and beans with boil, pepper) ○​ Many revolts (8 in 10 voyages), most ended in brutality ○​ Beatings and branding were common ○​ Abuses of women by ship’s crews were common ○​ The journey lasted up to 6 weeks – subject to storms, accidents, weather ○​ Disease and sickness are also a constant threat to life ○​ The estimated conclusion is that 12.3% of slaves died on each voyage ​ The enslaved people were prepared by the crew to be sold as slaves  ​ People were washed and shaved to appear healthy after their horrific journey ​ They were sold at auctions or through agents as property ​ Often families were separated at this time… no one knew where each other was taken ​ They worked at Plantations – land worked by enslaved peoples to produce crops such as cotton, sugar, and tobacco ​ It was backbreaking labour, working from sunrise to sunset, farm work and domestic work (servants in the house) ​ Their name was taken, treated as property, and separated from families, sexual exploitation, and brutal punishments created fear and trauma, could be sold without notice ​ Forms of resistance ○​ Attacking ships of enslaved people from the shore ○​ Revolts on ships of enslaved people ○​ Slowing down work on plantations, pretending to be ill ○​ Taking food and supplies ○​ Talking in your own language ○​ Escaping from the plantations – underground railway to Canada Examples of Colonialism around the world The French Revolution (Causes – 1789 begins) ​ The trigger event of the French Revolution was a tax crisis caused by unfair taxation, economic struggles, and social inequality. ​ Tax System ○​ Tax Farmers were people hired by the king to collect taxes from the population. These tax collectors had a deal with the king: they would agree to give him a fixed amount of money, but anything they collected beyond that could be kept for themselves. This meant that they were taking all the money from the peasants, who were already struggling ​ Tax Exemptions ○​ The First Estate (clergy) and the Second Estate (nobility) were exempt from taxes or paid very little. The clergy's taxes were voluntary, meaning they didn’t have to pay much, if anything. The nobles didn’t have to pay taxes at all. So, the burden of paying taxes fell  heavily on the Third Estate, which was made up of peasants, workers, and the middle class. ​ Bad Harvest and Drought ○​ In 1787, a drought hit France, which led to poor harvests. This made food scarce and expensive, adding to the suffering of the poor. Many people were already struggling to pay taxes and get by, and now they couldn’t even afford enough food. The French Revolution ​ In May 1789, King Louis XVI called a meeting of the Estates General, a group made up of three estates: the clergy (First Estate), nobility (Second Estate), and common people (Third Estate). Each estate brought forward their own concerns. The wealthy bourgeoisie (middle class) wanted more personal freedoms, while the nobility focused on keeping their privileges. ​ Abbé Sieyès, a priest, wrote a pamphlet arguing that the Third Estate, made up mostly of common people, had the most talent and was crucial for the country's progress ​ He believed that without the nobility, things would improve much more ​ His support for the Third Estate helped stir up the growing unrest that led to the French Revolution. ​ In May 1789, the Estates General met at Versailles to discuss France's financial crisis, but the three estates disagreed on how they should vote. ​ The 1st and 2nd estates wanted to vote by estate (each estate gets one vote), so they could easily outvote the 3rd estate. ​ The 3rd estate wanted voting by head (everyone gets an individual vote), since they had more members (610) than the other two estates (305 each) ​ Tensions rose, and the 3rd estate formed the "National Assembly" to create a new government though without consulting the king TENNIS COURT OATH ​ Third Estate is locked out of their customary meeting hall – the 3rd estate moved to a tennis court and swore not to leave until they had written a new constitution. This was the start of the revolution. STORMING OF BASTILLE ​ Tensions were high in France due to: ○​ Hopes for reform after the Estates-General  ○​ Soaring bread prices, making food expensive ○​ Fear of aristocratic plot (highest class in a society) to overthrow the National Assembly ​ Many Parisians feared royal troops might attack the city, so they searched for weapons. ​ On July 14, about 800-900 Parisians gathered at the Bastille, a prison that symbolized royal power.’ ​ They wanted to seize gunpowder and take a cannon aimed at the working-class district. ​ The governor of the Bastille ordered soldiers to fire on the crowd, killing 98 and wounding 73. ​ The crowd fought back, took control of the Bastille, freed 7 prisoners, and beheaded the governor. ​ This was the first act of violence in the French Revolution SUMMARY SO FAR ​ The National Assembly is formed by the 3rd Estate (government of the people but the king is still king of France... this will change...) ​ The Bourgeoisie (middle class) is leading the “moderate” stage of the revolution. ​ Storming of Bastille first peak at violence that will soon envelop the revolution ​ Bourgeoisie so far happy with developments and want to write a constitution that outlines their rights as citizens ​ These rights will embody the principles of the Enlightenment NEXT ​ The National Assembly created a constitution called the Decleration of the Rights of Man which declared a new set of rights for French citizens, inspired by Enlightenment ideas, proclaiming liberty, equality, and fraternity WOMENS MARCH ON VERSAILLES ​ Thousands of women marched to Versailles, demanding bread and the king’s return to Paris so Parisians could keep an eye on him and the king did go with them, symbolizing the king’s loss of power and the mob’s significant power Important Changes in France – end of 1789 ​ After the Estates-General, the Third Estate (commoners) became the National Assembly (also called the Constitutional Assembly) ○​ Their main goal was to create a constitution for France. ​ France became a constitutional monarchy: King Louis XVI still ruled, but the assembly held the power to make laws. INTRODUCING ROBESPIERRE: ​ Robespierre aimed to create a Republic of Virtue, where citizens actively supported the state's goals. He wanted a republic (no monarchy) and pushed for radical changes. ​ Robespierre gained the support of the working-class urban laborers, called Sans-Culottes ​ Robespierre's political group, the Jacobins, became the driving force behind the more violent stages of the revolution FRANCE DECLARING WAR ON MUCH OF EUROPE ​ Austria and Prussia threatened to attack France if the royal family was harmed, increasing anti-monarchy sentiment (strong feeling of opposition to the monarchy or the system of rule by a king or queen) in France THE ROYAL FAMILY’S ARREST ​ King Louis XVI tried to escape France and get foreign help to regain power, but he was caught and brought back to Paris. This was a major blow to his reputation. ​ Jacobins stormed the royal palace and imprisoned the royal family. The king's Swiss guards were killed, and their heads were placed on pikes, symbolizing the growing violence THE SEPTEMBER MASSACERES ​ Rumors spread that foreign armies were coming to Paris to free the king. This caused panic among the people as they believed that many of the prisoners were enemies of the revolution who might be plotting to aid the king. ​ The Paris mob attacked the city’s prisons from September 2 to 6, 1792 and killed over 1,200 people. Many victims were innocent, including young people and political prisoners REIGN OF TERROR BEGINS ​ The revolution became more radical under Robespierre and the Jacobins. They believed that violence was necessary to bring true change and eliminate enemies of the revolution. ​ The Legislative Assembly dissolved, and the National Convention took over. The first act of the Convention was to abolish the monarchy, officially ending King Louis XVI’s reign. Mary Wollstonecraft – women’s rights ​ Upper-class women, despite being admired for their status, are actually the most oppressed because they have no freedom to act, speak, or make choices ​ Their roles are primarily to marry for wealth and produce male heirs, with strict expectations around behavior, appearance, and etiquette  ​ If they fail to conform, they face serious consequences. In contrast, peasant women had more freedom, especially in choosing whom to marry, because their marriages weren’t tied to wealth or inheritance. ​ The idea is that giving women rights wouldn’t lead them to create their own separate society. ○​ Instead, it would allow them to be better wives, daughters, and sisters, as they would be free to love and choose partners based on personal connection, not societal obligation. ○​ Women would feel more connected to society and have the freedom to live more authentically. Propaganda – Hair & Fashion ​ The aristocratic styles of the 18th century, such as expensive fabrics like silk, velvet, and taffeta, were seen as symbols of the old regime and its privilege ○​ The revolution aimed to reject these luxury items, which were associated with the monarchy and aristocracy, and replace them with more modest and practical clothing. ​ The new revolutionary fashion was simple and affordable. Women’s dresses were made from cotton or linen, usually in one solid color, to reject the ornate styles of the aristocracy. Men’s clothing also became simpler, with frock coats and britches made from wool, and shirts from cotton or linen. This reflected the shift toward equality and fraternity as the new values of the republic. ​ After the Storming of the Bastille on July 14, 1789, the city government of Paris decreed that all citizens must wear a tricolor cockade. This circular emblem, made of red, blue, and white ribbons, symbolized the revolution. ○​ Red and Blue: The colors of Paris. ○​ White: The color of the monarchy, representing a symbolic connection between the revolution and the king ​ Revolutionaries wore the tricolor cockade to show their support for political change and the new Republic. Men wore red coats, white stockings, and blue britches, aligning with the colors of the revolution. ​ Revolutionaries wore the tricolor cockade and clothes in red, white, and blue to show support for the new Republic. ​ In contrast, monarchy loyalists wore pure white, symbolizing the Bourbon monarchy, which was seen as defiance against the revolution.  ​ In the tense climate of the time, wearing white or aristocratic clothing could lead to arrest or persecution, so most people conformed to the new revolutionary fashion to avoid suspicion. Reign of Terror – violence, guillotine… Execution of the King ​ After the Republic was declared, France was put on trial. He was sentenced to death ​ He was executed in public on January 21, 1793 using the guillotine Execution of the Queen ​ Marie Antoinetter was also put on trial for treason (seeking help from Austria duing the revolution) ​ Despire folklore, it is higly unlikely she said this “Let them eat cake” when told that people in Paris were starving. But her diva life styler and detachment from the plight of the French citizen ultimately caused her demise ​ Also was accused of incest ​ In the end, she is found guilty of treason and executed During the Reign of Terror ​ Jacobins saw everyone as their enemies.. Bourgeouise, counter-revolutinaries, profiteers, san collutes ○​ They had paranoia there were going to be overthrown Guilotine – Equality for All ​ Behading was a privilege reserved for the aristocracy ​ The Frenh Revolutionaries gave the privilege to everyone ​ “Equal in life, equal in death” – Libery, Equality, Fraternity (motto of the FR) ​ Public executions were a way of sending a message saying not to betray the Revolutin ​ Guillltines were located at every street corner During Reign or Terror ​ Revolutionary officials could arrest and execute anyone suspected of having anti-revolutionary views ​ The street cleaners were unable to keep up with all the blood flowing in the streets Robespierre and the Republic of Virtue ​ The committe of public safety used measures to achieve goals ○​ Execution of all enemies  ○​ Conscription enacted for revolutionary wars ○​ All men can vote regardless of colour, religion, jobs ​ To achieve a republic of virtue he created a temporary dictatorship to ensure the revolution was a success ​ He disregarded civil rights – they were terrorizing citizens in order to create their vision of a republic of virtue ○​ Renaming streets ○​ Churchs renames ○​ People re names themsleves ○​ Metric system was introduced to promote rational thinking The Republic of Virtue ​ At the height of it, he held a festival of the supreme being ​ He created a massive paper mache mountain in the middle of Paris and Robeisphere himself descends from the top of the mountain in a white toga and presents himself to the people ​ Even the supporters now think he has gone too far ​ He threatened he had a list of names – more purges ​ Worried that their own names would be on the list, members of the constitutional assembly worked to arrest him and his committe members and he was guillotined and the Reign of Terror was over Napolean – military hero, statesman, emperor – heir or betrayer of the revolution? Heir (supported revolution) Betrayed Revolutionary Ideas -​ Lowered voting age to 21 (men) allowing -​ Gave the Catholic Church back power, the more political participation official religion of France -​ Equality before the law (Napoleonic code) + -​ Declared himself emperor of France equal taxes -​ Created “consuls” → 10 year term – 1st consul -​ Kept freedom of religion -​ Wanter an “heir” - son to the throne - like -​ Created secondary school system, and kings graduate requirements (prof. bodies) -​ Aggressive military general (violence) -​ Brought “enlightenment” ideas to Italy (i.e → empire building freedom of the press, vote) -​ Poisoned troops oppose fraternity ( old kings)  ​ Born in 1769 in Corsica, which had recently been acquired by France. ​ Napoleon's rise came from the middle-class revolution, meaning he was not born into aristocracy but benefited from the opportunities that the French Revolution (1789) created for people outside the nobility to rise through military and political ranks. ​ Unlike many aristocratic officers, Napoleon supported the French Revolution and its ideas. This was key in allowing him to gain the favor of revolutionary leaders, especially when royalist factions were still fighting for the monarchy to be restored. ​ In 1795, the French government (called the Directory) was under threat from a royalist uprising in Paris ○​ The royalists were trying to bring back the old monarchy, which had been abolished during the Revolution ○​ Napoleon, who was commanding artillery at the time, used grapeshot (a type of cannonball) to decisively suppress the protesters. This event became known as the “Whiff of Grapeshot” ​ Gained fame for his military successes, especially in Italy (1796) ​ In 1796, Napoleon became Commander-in-Chief of the French Army and led successful military campaigns, especially in Italy, where he defeated the Austrians and spread revolutionary ideals like freedom of the press, education, and equality. His success in Italy made him a national hero. ​ In 1799, after a failed Egyptian campaign, Napoleon returned to France and saw an opportunity to take control. The Directory (the five-member government) was weak and discredited, so Napoleon, along with his ally Sieyes, orchestrated a coup d'état, overthrowing the government. Rise to Emperor: ​ After the coup, Napoleon became the First Consul of France (a position with almost dictatorial power). He consolidated his control over the country and began centralizing the government. ​ In 1804, Napoleon declared himself Emperor of France, cementing his power. His coronation was a major public event, and famously, Napoleon crowned himself to show he owed his authority not to the church or any external power but to his own actions. Reforms and Code Napoleon: ​ As emperor, Napoleon made significant reforms: ○​ He created the Code Napoleon, a comprehensive set of laws that emphasized legal equality, property rights, and other Enlightenment principles. ○​ He also made peace with the Catholic Church through the Concordat of 1801, which acknowledged Catholicism as the religion of France while allowing religious freedom and state control over the church.  ○​ Napoleon established a new system of education, creating secondary schools (lycees) and military academies to train future leaders. Military Conquests and Empire Expansion: ​ Napoleon’s military genius allowed him to conquer much of Europe. His Napoleonic Wars (from 1803 to 1815) were marked by frequent battles with coalitions of European powers, including Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Austria. ​ He built a vast empire that included large parts of Italy, Spain, Austria, Germany, and more. However, his quest for European hegemony (control over all of Europe) was not without its problems, particularly the Continental System, a trade blockade intended to weaken Britain. Ironically, it hurt France's own economy more than Britain’s. The Russian Campaign and Fall: ​ In 1812, Napoleon's empire began to unravel when he invaded Russia. The Russian winter and the Russian strategy of burning their own land (called the "scorched earth policy") to deprive the French of resources devastated his army. Of the 600,000 soldiers that marched into Russia, only about 100,000 returned. ​ This defeat weakened Napoleon significantly, and in 1813, a coalition of Russia, Prussia, Austria, and Britain defeated Napoleon in the Battle of Leipzig (known as the Battle of the Nations). The victorious allies invaded France and captured Paris in 1814. Exile, Return, and Final Defeat: ​ In 1814, after his abdication, Napoleon was exiled to the small Mediterranean island of Elba. During his exile, he tried to improve the island's economy but faced revolt due to his unpopular taxes and policies. ​ In 1815, Napoleon escaped Elba and returned to France in what was known as the “Flight of the Eagle”. He briefly regained power for 100 days, but was decisively defeated at the Battle of Waterloo by a coalition led by the British Duke of Wellington. This marked the end of his rule. Final Exile and Death: ​ After his defeat at Waterloo, Napoleon was exiled to the remote island of St. Helena in the South Atlantic Ocean, where he spent his final years. ​ He died in 1821, likely from stomach cancer, though some speculate he may have been poisoned. ​ Napoleon's legacy remains significant. His Code Napoleon influenced legal systems worldwide, and his reforms in government and education helped modernize France and other countries. The Industrial Revolution – England (factors or origin) ​ Availability of capital (the wealthy mercantile class had money to invest in factories) ​ Experience of merchants – technology which made the revolution possible  ​ Influence of Adam Smith (Scottish) and his capitalist ideas– free marketplace ideas (capitalism) already established in Britain ​ Britain was free from invasion and civil unrest so it could focus on the economy Industrial Revolution – Social impact ​ Overcrowding, poor housing, scarcity of fresh water and poor or non-existent sanitation made cities an ideal environment for the spread of disease. ​ Only had bare essentials (mattresses, chairs, eating utensils), no luxury items, shared housing ​ Houses built in rows or squares with a common toilet and water tap in the middle for shared use ​ Little provision for clean water and the removal of refuse and human waste Industrial Revolution - Factory Work ​ Workweek – six full working days and one day of rest for Sunday. Saturday was payday and the evening was a time for shopping and parties ​ The day began at five or six o’clock in the morning, with breakfast at eight o’clock. The actual working time was 12 to 14 hours, and the workday lasted 14 – 16 hours and concluded at nine o’clock in the evening. Industrial Revolution - Women and child labour ​ Women were treated like a slave, beaten, pinched and pushed about ​ Some were not over 10 years old, a few were in middle life, but the majority were between the ages of sixteen and twenty-five ​ They were paid two dollars a week. The working hours of all the girls extended from five o'clock in the morning until seven in the evening, with one half-hour each, for breakfast and dinner. ​ Women worked to secure the means of education for some male members of the family ​ To make a gentleman of a brother or a son, to give him a college education ​ Picking up loose cotton, going under machines when they are going ​ Long hours (Ex. starting at 5 in the morning and working until dinner time and then to 9-10 at night or Saturday even 11 or 12) ​ They would sometimes be beat with pieces of thick leather straps ​ There were plenty of them in orphanages and children could be replaced easily if an accident did occur  ​ They were much cheaper than adults as a factory owner did not have to pay them as much ​ They were small enough to crawl under machinery to tie up broken threads ​ They were young enough to be bullied by ‘strappers’ – adults would not have stood for this Industrial Revolution - Luddites ​ Industrial workers in the British textile industry were known for their destruction of machinery in textile factories. ​ The factory owners had begun to replace their skilled labour with these inexpensive machines ​ They felt as though they were losing their jobs and livelihoods ​ If they were caught by the police, they were put on trial and executed for their roles Industrial Revolution - Inventions ​ ‘Spinning Jenny’ ○​ Within twenty years the number of threads one machine could spin rose from six to eighty. ​ Robert’s Power Loom ○​ All stages in the making of cotton could now be done in one factory. ​ Water Frame ○​ First fully automatic and continuously operating spinning machine. It produced stronger and greater quantities of thread than the spinning jenny did. Utilitarianism ​ Jeremy Bentham was a Liberal philosopher and moralist ​ Created a way out of the social impasse of the 19th century ○​ (Industrialization was necessary but was costing the workers their health and dignity because of deplorable working conditions) ​ Bentham accepted Smith’s (Enlightenment Thinker – father of capitalism) argument. While Smith argued that it was best to free individuals to pursue their own self-interest, Bentham realized that conflicts could occur and there would be real winners and losers. ​ His solution was Utilitarianism ○​ making decisions that lead to the most happiness or benefit for the most people.​ ​ Principle of Utility  ○​ “the greatest happiness of all individuals of which [a political community] is composed, or, in other words, the greatest happiness of the greatest number.” ​ The main goal of utilitarianism ○​ maximize pleasure and minimize pain ​ Problems ○​ Who defines what is best for the “Individual”? ○​ What happens to minority rights? ○​ Should everyone have the same rights? Should criminals have the same rights ○​ as law-abiding citizens? ​ If the workers were the majority of people in society, you would want to make sure they are the ones who are benefiting from the factory work so they will be attracted to this idea that the common good is what helps them with their pursuit of happiness or quality of life ​ Modern examples ○​ Healthcare → Universal healthcare, free healthcare but it is there if we need it regardless, we pay into it through taxes even if we do not use it a lot but it is for the majority of people's happiness ○​ Public transportation → not everyone uses it but has access to it and something that lots of people need for their everyday lives and it is good for the environment ○​ Democracy → when we go to the ballot and we vote and the majority who vote for a specific person then wins which shows that they are what the majority of the people would want in their country/society Communism – The Communist Manifesto – Marx and Engels ​ In 1848-1849, Europe was facing a serious economic depression, with many people losing jobs and struggling financially. ​ The Communist League, a group of exiled German radicals, expected things to get worse and wanted to help workers prepare for the crisis. They asked two thinkers, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, to write something that would guide workers on how to respond. ​ In just six weeks, Marx and Engels wrote the Communist Manifesto. It argued that workers should own the factories and businesses (the "means of production") together and that a revolution led by workers was the only way to create a fairer society.  ​ Marx’s famous quote, “The history of all hitherto existing societies is the history of class struggle,” means that throughout history, society has always been divided into different classes, and these classes are in conflict with each other ​ In the case of the French Revolution of 1789, Marx saw it as an example of this class struggle. He argued that the old feudal system, where kings and nobles held power (called autocratic feudalism), had become so unstable and unfair that it led to a revolutionary crisis. The people (especially the rising middle class and workers) revolted and overthrew the feudal system, replacing it with a new capitalist system controlled by the Bourgeoisie (the capitalist class, made up of business owners, factory owners, and the wealthy). ​ In the 19th century, capitalism made the rich richer and the poor poorer. Marx believed that capitalism created fierce competition, which was bad for workers. He argued that the owners (the bourgeoisie) made money by exploiting the labor of workers (the proletariat). According to Marx, all wealth comes from the hard work of wage-earning workers. ​ Marx believed that historical contradictions—the deep problems and inequalities in society—were the result of major changes happening over time. ○​ These contradictions, especially the struggles between different classes (like the rich and the poor), eventually led to revolutions ​ Marx saw revolutions as the "locomotives of history"—meaning they were like powerful engines that pushed history forward. In other words, revolutions were the key forces that forced society to change and move toward a new system Application to Industrialism ​ Marxism applied to industrialism argues that the rise of factories and mass production during the Industrial Revolution created a system where the rich (capitalists or bourgeoisie) exploited the poor (workers or proletariat). Factory owners profited by paying workers less than the value of what they produced. Marx believed this created a deep class struggle between the owners and the workers. He argued that this exploitation would eventually lead to a revolution, where the workers would overthrow the capitalists and take control of the means of production, creating a more equal society. ​ The “New” Imperialism ​ The “new” imperialism relied more on colonization and military conquests rather than on loose economic ties AFRICA ​ The Dutch controlled the Cape of Good Hope & the French, Algeria ​ In 1884-1885, Bismar called a meeting of 15 European nations - The Berlin conference ○​ Its purpose was to deal with rival claims to Africa ○​ African nations were not invited to the conference nor consulted about the future of the continent ​ To avoid conflict, European powers agreed that possession of a colony meant the physical occupation of the African land and control over the people ​ The discovery of gold and diamonds in South Africa meant that it was important economically (eventually this would lead to the Boer wars ​ Africa was strategically important to Britain as it provided a trade route to Britain Partition of Africa ​ Europe felt it had the “right” to colonies which provided them with power and wealth (useful as a bargaining chip in other conflicts) ​ Europe also argued that there was an obligation on their part to colonize as part of a “trust for civilization” (useful as a bargaining chip in Otto) ​ Others (Lenin included) argued Europe's interest was primarily economic – colonies were used to bolster the economics of the larger European powers (primarily materials and guaranteed markets) INDIA ​ East India Trading Company forged alliances with local Indian rulers and became involved politically ​ As a result, Britain used its power to reform agrarian and communication system ​ The missionaries also came with the traders and introduced Christianity and English education ​ Abolished the ancient ….. ​ Military – Indian soldiers (sepoys) were forced to accept military service anywhere in the Britain Empire ○​ This challenged the strict caste system that disallowed Hindus from “crossing black water” Also, when loading the Enfield rifle, the sepoys had to bite off the tip of the  cartridge smeared in animal fat. → this violated the Hindu religious practice of not eating types of meat ​ Indian Mutiny of 1857 – As a response to these practices, sepoys refused to reload weapons ○​ This led to a series of revolts across the country ○​ Britain repressed the revolt and executed rebellion leaders ○​ In 1858, Britain took formal control of India Economic Legacy ​ Local production in non-Western countries moved from a subsistence to an export economy ​ This created an atmosphere of dependency as workers changed ​ Other methods to force Indigenous populations to wage labour ○​ Head or hut tax had to be paid by locals to the rules, but it had to be paid in European currency ○​ Thus, locals were forced to work as wage-earners for colonial companies to obtain European currency Charles Darwin & The Theory of Natural Selection ​ The idea that the universe operated as a harmoniously balanced machine created by God was challenged in the 19th C by Charles Darwin ​ Other ideas about evolution were surfacing around the same time but Darwin created the theory of natural selection which provided a mechanism for evolution The Theory of Natural Selection  ​ Charles Darwin said that life on Earth is the result of millions of years of changes. Over time, species (like animals, plants, etc.) change to adapt to their environment. ​ "Successful" species are those that can adapt well to their environment. ○​ These species tend to live longer and have more offspring (babies). The babies inherit their parents’ traits, which might include those helpful adaptations. ○​ For example, imagine a group of animals in a forest. Some of them are born with slightly darker fur, which helps them blend in better with their surroundings. These darker animals are less likely to be seen by predators, so they survive longer. ​ "Unsuccessful" species are the ones that can’t adapt well enough to changes in their environment. These species might not survive as long or produce as many babies. ​ Darwin's idea is that species that can change and adapt to their environment are more likely to survive, reproduce, and pass on those helpful traits, while those that can't adapt will eventually fade away. This process is called natural selection. ​ Darwin did NOT say “survival of the fittest”! Modification has no “higher” end goal – no direction…it just is Social Darwinism ​ In the late 19th C, some thinkers began to apply Darwinist thinking to politics, society and economics – Darwin never intended this. It was a misinterpretation of Darwin’s theory ​ Herbert Spencer coined the phrase “survival of the fittest” leading to the school of thought → Social Darwinism ​ Social Darwinists thought… ○​ Businesses were allowed to fail ○​ People should be left to starve ○​ Disease and death should weed out the unfit ​ Social Darwinism was racist ○​ Using this standard, European powers considered themselves the “fittest” and therefore destined to “survive” and rule (part of the racist colonial narrative) ​ In the late 19th C and early 18th C, Social Darwinism was used to “justify” ○​ Industrial capitalism → cutthroat competition ○​ Imperialism → empire building through the oppression of Indigenous peoples ○​ Nationalism → “master race” – Hitler  ○​ Eugenics → sterilization process and genetic testing Opium Wars ​ The British wanted access to Chinese markets and products, the British were thirsty for tea! ​ Britain had a hard time paying China for things like tea because China only accepted silver as payment, and Britain didn't have enough silver. The British tried to offer things like pottery, scientific tools, and woolen goods, but China wasn't interested. ​ Tea, which Britain really wanted, was becoming too expensive. So, to solve this problem, the British started to sell opium (a drug) to China. They got the opium from India, which was also under British control, and sold it to Chinese merchants. ​ As a result, Britain became involved in drug trading in the Pacific region, making money by getting people in China hooked on opium ​ In 1839, the Chinese emperor, Daoguang, decided to take action and declared war on the opium trade, hoping to stop the harmful drug from flooding the country. ​ But when China tried to stop the opium trade, the British didn’t back down. They saw trade as important for their economy and decided to use military force to protect what they called "free trade," meaning they wanted to continue selling opium to China without interference. ​ In other words, the British used their military to keep the drug trade going, even though it was illegal in China. ​ In 1839, the Chinese government took action against Western traders by raiding their operations. They locked up 13 warehouses and forced the traders to surrender their opium. ​ This made British traders angry, and they convinced the British government to send military help. In June 1840, Britain sent a powerful fleet of 16 warships and 27 transport ships carrying 4,000 soldiers to China. ​ One of the new weapons the British had was an iron warship called "The Nemesis." This ship had a rocket launcher that could fire rockets as far as 2 miles. ​ The British attacked the Chinese navy and destroyed it in just 5 and a half hours. They then continued to move up the coast toward Shanghai over the next two years, defeating the Chinese forces at every step. Many of the Chinese soldiers were addicted to opium, which made them weaker in battle. ​ The fighting resulted in heavy losses for China, with 20,000 to 25,000 Chinese soldiers killed, while only 69 British soldiers lost their lives. Treaty of Nanking ​ In 1842, near the town of Nanking, the Chinese signed a treaty to end the wars – The Treaty of Nanking. ​ The treaty was called an "unequal treaty" because it forced China to agree to terms that heavily favoured Britain, and it reflected the unfair treatment China received due to imperialism. ​ Treaty Highlights: China had to… ○​ open 5 ports to foreign trade ○​ pay 21 million dollars to the British government (for the war & loss of earnings) ○​ give Hong Kong Island to the British UNIT FOUR: 1900 CE - Today Fredrich Nietzshe – Nihilism ​ Nietzsche's philosophy of nihilism is about questioning the meaning of life and values ​ No absolute values ○​ There is no universal truth that applies to everyone. Each person must find their own truth. ​ Truth is subjective ○​ What is true for one person might not be true for another, so searching for one "truth" for all is pointless. ​ Spiritual crisis ○​ Nietzsche saw this as a major issue in the modern world, where traditional values (like religion) were being questioned, leaving many people feeling lost. ​ "Man would sooner have the void for his purpose than be void of Purpose" ○​ Nietzsche believed that people would rather live with no clear meaning (the void) than without any purpose at all. ​ Life has no inherent meaning, and each person must create their own purpose in a world without absolute truths or values. This idea became an important part of the existentialist and modern philosophical movements. World War One – causes, modern weapons and technologies, Eastern and Western Front, legacy (positive and negative) ​ Jingoism → Patriotism, nationalism ​ I think this contributed to WWI because each country thought they are the best which led to the war because they tried to be better than the other and win ​ Assassination of Arch-Duke Franz Ferdinand ​ Lethal Chlorine Gas (Gas attacks) → could end someone unlucky enough to come into proximity with it or could depend on how the breeze was blowing at the time ​ Periscope ○​ It allows soldiers to keep watch without getting hurt by the violence ​ It forced Germany to accept sole blame for WW1 ○​ France and Britain wanted Germany to pay for the destruction it had caused (35 billion USD) ​ There were several punishments for Germany such as ○​ All conquered territory returned ○​ All overseas investment was taken by the Allies ○​ Germany gave up control of its coal mines ○​ No military forts were allowed along the French border ○​ Had to reduce its military and could not re-arm in any way ○​ No Navy or Air Force allowed Women’s Suffrage – Suffragetes (Pankhurt) vs Suffragists Societal Attitdues in 1900 ​ No equality between men and women ​ Women were treated as property of men ​ A common belief was a womens place was in the home ​ Women had limited education and job options ​ Women were nurses, teachers, etc The Early Fight for the Vote ​ In Britain, women began asking the government to vote but often their efforts were not taken seriously. ​ Women gad no place in political descuons ​ In most Western countries the vote cam peacfully, but not so in Britain ​ Bristish women were nicknames Suffragists and organized formally to raise support and awareness for the women’s vote.. Suffragists started… ○​ Petitioning ○​ Lobbying ○​ Marching ​ There was a lot of resistance to women getting the vote in Britain  ​ Some women believed more extreme measures were necessary to get the governments attention ​ Due to this, another group was formed.. The Suffragettes ○​ Held public rallies ○​ Scuffled with police ○​ Threw objects through windows ○​ Chained themselves to fences ○​ Went on hunger strikes ​ Emiline Pankhurts ○​ Leader of the suffragettes Similarties Differences -​ Wanted to get the right to vote -​ Suffragists believed in peaceful tactics -​ Used propaganda to get the message out (petitioning, rallies) where as the -​ Both thought their method was better suffragettes believed in direct action than the other group (violence and military) -​ Suffragists (large group), the suffragettes did not. -​ A lot of the suffragists' efforts were ignored whereas the suffragettes received a lot of publicity. Tacticts and Events ​ 300 Suffragettes marched into Parialment to protest the governments inaction on th issue of women’s vote ​ Women were “man-handled” and imprisoned ​ More women were arrested and sent to prison. Some of these women went on hunger strikes to protest. ​ The government introduced the cat and mouse act. ○​ Women on hunger strikes were released to homes to gain back their strength then rearrested when they were fit to be imprisoned. ​ Suffracgette - actions of Emily Davison ​ June 4, 1913 - Emily Davison protested by jumping in front of a horse at the epsom races. She was killed. WWl and the right to vote  ​ During WWI, women stepped up to fill men’s roles at home while the men were needed for fighting in the war. ​ Women operated street cars, built weapons in munition factories, managed stores, and kept farms producing. ​ No longer could men claim that women were not up to the task and responsibility of voting. Although the war was devastating, it did end the struggle for the vote. ​ By the end of the war in 1918, most western countries (Canada included) had given women the right to vote. Residential School – Dr. Byrce The Russian Revolution