HIST 110 Review Summary PDF

**HIST 110: Review Summary** **[Lecture 1: Introduction, the Stone Age]** -Bipedality: Walking upright. Crucial development in evolution allowing humans to use their hands to create tools. -Hunter-Gatherer Cultures in the Paleolithic Period. Use of stone tools to hunt and cook. -Lascaux Cave Pai...

**HIST 110: Review Summary** **[Lecture 1: Introduction, the Stone Age]** -Bipedality: Walking upright. Crucial development in evolution allowing humans to use their hands to create tools. -Hunter-Gatherer Cultures in the Paleolithic Period. Use of stone tools to hunt and cook. -Lascaux Cave Paintings: Early art from ca. 17,000 BCE. -Last Ice Age ca. 10 000 BCE. Large areas previously used for hunting and fishing are flooded. Extinction of several large mammals, i.e. mammoths. -Mesolithic Period ca. 10 000-8000 BCE. Slow development towards a more sedentary lifestyle in many societies. -Neolithic Period ca. 8000-5000 BCE. Development of agriculture and animal husbandry. -Agriculture creates more food surpluses that can be stockpiled. Increased specialization in societies: some people do not need to work in food production, can become specialized in certain tasks, for example scribes, artisans. -Metal working: Metallurgy. Copper tools replacing stone tools. -First urban settlements. Çatal-Höyük Large Neolithic Settlement in southern Anatolia (now Turkey), most well known of early settlements. **[Lecture 2: Bronze Age Mesopotamia and Egypt (ca. 4000-1200 BCE)]** -Hydraulic Civilizations: Living near and using great rivers for agricultural purposes. Notably: Nile in Egypt, Tigris and Euphrates in Mesopotamia. -Sumerian Civilization, ca. 4500-2000 BCE. -Uruk Period (ca. 3900-3200 BCE). Period of preponderance of city of Uruk. Development of first writing system: Cuneiform Writing ca. 3200 BCE. -Early Dynastic Period (ca. 3200-2334 BCE). Sumerian King List: Semi mythical, contains reigns in the hundreds of years, becomes more historical as we move away from the remote past. -Development of state-sponsored armies with metal weapons and first wheeled chariots ca. 3000 BCE. -Emergence of Ziggurats, a pyramid-like temple, often the biggest structure in a Sumerian city, home of the city's main deity. -Empire of Akkad (Akkadian) ca. 2300-2115 BCE. King Sargon of Akkad, ruled ca. 2270--2215 BCE. First hegemonic empire in Mesopotamia. -Third Dynasty of Ur (2112-2004 BCE) Founded by Ur-Nammu (ca. 2047-2030). Composition of the Epic of Gilgamesh (ca. 2150--2000 BCE). Details the adventures of Gilgamesh, the legendary ruler of Uruk and his friend Enkidu. One of the world's oldest pieces of literature. -Old Babylonian Empire ca. 2017-1595 BCE. King Hammurabi Ruled ca. 1728 to 1686 BCE. Hammurabi's Law Code: About 282 laws and penalties for breaking them. Attempt at replacing private feuds with a public system of justice. -Sack of Babylon ca. 1531 BCE by the Hittite Empire. They notably use war chariots pulled by horses. -Ancient Egypt ca. 3150 BCE. The Nile River: Source of Life for Egypt. The annual flood fertilizes a narrow strip of land on the banks of the river. This is cultivated intensively. -Turin papyrus (ca. 1300-1200 BCE). Provides lists of pharaohs who ruled Egypt. (Papyrus is type of ancient 'paper' made with a plant bearing the same name.) -Early Dynastic Period (ca. 3000-2700 BCE). Upper and Lower Egypt are unified for the first time under a single ruler, or pharaoh, Narmer (also called Menes). -Egyptian Government: Pharaoh: King of Egypt, living god; Vizier: Main executive officer; Nomarch: regional governor of a Nome (administrative district). -Hieroglyphs, ca. 3000 BCE. Complex Egyptian writing systems comprising hundreds of pictograms. Deciphered by modern scholars using the Rosetta Stone (from 196 BCE), found in 1799, which comprises a Greek translation of a text in Hieroglyphs. -Old Kingdom: (3rd-6th dynasty, ca. 2700-2190 BCE). Cultivation of Flax: used for linen clothes and mummification. -Mastaba 'Precursor' of Egyptian pyramids. Simple rectangle-like structure with underground burial chamber. -Step-Pyramid of Djoser at Saqqara (ca. 2700 BCE), vaguely resembles mastabas stacked one on top of another. Used as tomb by pharaohs. -Pharaoh Snofru's Pyramid at Meidum... (ca. 2600 BCE). Attempt at building a pyramid with smooth sides over a core made up of a step-pyramid. The outer surfaces collapsed, leaving only the core standing. -Bent Pyramid of Pharaoh Snofru at Dashur (ca. 2600 BCE). Snofru's architects changed the slope of this pyramid to prevent it from collapsing like the one at Meidum. -Pyramids with smooth sides of Kings Cheops, Chefren and Mycerinus from the 4th dynasty (c. 2600-2400 BCE) at Gizeh. Biggest pyramid standing. -Workers were not slaves. They were conscripted during the season of the Nile flood and paid in bread and beer rations. -First Intermediate Period ca. 2181--2055. Loss of unity in Egypt, emergence of rival dynasties ruling parts of Egypt. -Middle Kingdom (11th-13th dynasties, ca. 1990-1630 BCE). Egypt is reunited. -Second Intermediate Period ca. 1782-1570 BCE Foreign Hyksos Invasion! Hyksos invade Egypt ca. 1600 BCE. Introduce war chariots in Egypt. Establish a kingdom in Lower Egypt. -New Kingdom, ca. 1550 - 1077 BCE. Greatest Phase of Expansion of Egypt. Egyptians adopt war chariots and expel Hyksos. Egypt reunited. -Development of a professional army whose core are chariots used as mobile archery platforms. -Thutmose I (ruled ca. 1506--1493 BCE). Conquers territories south of Egypt and in the Near East. -Hatshepsut (r. 1479-1458 BCE) Most famous female Pharaoh of the New Kingdom. Famous Mortuary temple, becomes the norm as tomb for Pharaohs of the New Kingdom. Pyramids no longer built. -Thutmose III (ruled ca. 1458--1425 BCE) Won the Battle of Megiddo 1457 over various kings in Syria. First recorded battle in history. Expands Egyptian rule into Mesopotamia. -Akhenaton (ruled ca. 1353--1336 BCE). Tried to implement a sort of monotheistic belief system based on sun worship. Became unpopular because of this, disappears from history. Fled? Was killed? -Ramses II (ruled ca. 1279--1213 BCE). Warrior-Pharaoh *par excellence*. Fights the Battle of Kadesh in the Near East (1274 BCE) against Hittite Empire. Results in a draw. First peace treaty in history (both sides claimed victory). -Ramesses III (r. 1186 to 1155 BCE) Successfully fought the 'Sea Peoples' ca. 1180 in the Nile Delta. -Period of decline in Egypt after him. **[Lecture 3: Coastal Cultures, Iron Age Mesopotamia]** -Minoan Civilization in Crete, ca. 3000-1400 BCE. -Sir Arthur Evans (1851-1941) coined the term 'Minoan'. The palaces in Crete reminded of the labyrinth where the mythological King Minos imprisoned the Minotaur. -Minoan art features a lot of scenes featuring nature and animals. Palaces did not feature large fortifications. Some scholars have thus assumed that Minoans were a peaceful people. -Their writing, Linear A, has not been deciphered. Significant obstacle in understanding the Minoans. -Minoan civilization fell, probably as a result of invasion by the Mycenaeans from the Greek mainland ca. 1450 BCE. Mycenaean writing tablets (Linear B, has been deciphered) have been found in Crete dating to around that time. -Mycenaean civilization named after the fortress of Mycenae, not the capital of a kingdom, rather all similar fortresses were independent states. -Because of their large fortifications and bronze weapons, Mycenaeans appear to have been more warlike than the Minoans. -'Dark Ages' or 'Bronze Age Collapse' ca. 1200-1100 BCE. Most Mycenaean fortresses are abandoned or destroyed. The Hittite Empire also crumbles. Theory of the 'Sea Peoples' who might have attacked the Mycenaeans and the Hittites. Egyptians recorded to have fought them. -Results of the Bronze Age Collapse in Greece: Knowledge of writing becomes lost, decline in population and technology. -Eastern Mediterranean in the Iron Age ca. 1000 BCE. Phoenicians: Semitic people. Homeland corresponds roughly to modern day Lebanon. Great traders and seafarers, establish several colonies in the Mediterranean, notably Carthage in western North Africa. -Hebrews (ca. 2000-900 BCE). First nomads, followed leader Abraham. Eventually made a covenant with their god Jehovah and followed leader Moses to the promised land (Canaan). -In Canaan, they become sedentary and establish the Israelite Kingdom with Jerusalem as capital. Most famous kings: King David (ca. 1010-970 BCE), King Solomon (ca. 970-930 BCE). Kingdom would eventually fall victim to neighbouring powers. -Assyrian Empire, ca. 850-605 BCE. Became the largest empire in Mesopotamia at the time. -Had a professional army, made use of iron weapons, first to master horseback riding for military purposes, competent in siege warfare: use of siege towers, tunneling, and covered battering rams. -King Tiglath-Pilezer III (745-727 BCE) Most successful Assyrian conqueror. -671: Expansion of the Assyrian Empire into Egypt under King Asarhaddon (r. 681--669 BCE). -Nineveh becomes the capital of the Assyrian Empire in the early 7th century. -Assyrians dealt harshly with revolts: mass deportations and executions. They also do not integrate subject populations but rather try to squeeze as many resources from them as possible. Assyrian rule is thus resented. -King Assurbanipal (668-627 BCE): Beginning of the collapse of the empire during his reign. Loss of Egypt in 655. Sack of Nineveh in 612 by the Chaldeans and Medes. Final defeat in 605. -New Babylonian (a.k.a. Chaldean) Empire 612--539 BCE. Occupies most of what used to be the Assyrian Empire. The Medes also establish a powerful state north of the New Babylonian Empire. -Under King Nebuchadrezzar (ruled ca. 605-561 BCE), Babylon becomes the most magnificent city of Mesopotamia: adorned with monumental Ishtar Gate and **Hanging Gardens.** -Persian Empire (550--330 BCE). The Persians were vassals of the Medes but overthrew them and established an empire of their own under King Cyrus (ruled 559--530 BCE). -Lydian Kingdom of Asia Minor conquered by Persia in 547. -Cyrus Cylinder: Claims that the main Babylonian god Marduk chose Cyrus to bring peace to Babylon. Attempt by Cyrus to portray himself as acceptable to Babylonians. Tries to respect local cultures rather than rule by brute strength. -Cambyses (ruled 530 --522 BCE). Successor of Cyrus, conquers Egypt in 525. In the writings of the later Greek historian Herodotus, Cambyses is portrayed as being disrespectful to Egyptian customs and religion. However, in contemporary stone inscriptions, Cambyses is depicted as assuming the role of a traditional pharaoh and respecting Egyptian customs. -Darius I (ruled 522-486 BCE). Further enlarged the empire, campaigned in Europe. -No standing army, except 'The Immortals', a 10,000 strong Persian Royal Guard. The rest is levied according to the military needs of the moment. -Empire divided in **satrapies (provinces), each governed by a satrap. Given a lot of freedom to govern.** -Darius I establishes the Royal Road in the western part of the empire to allow fast circulation of messages and news. Persepolis established by Darius I as primary capital of the empire. -Main religion: Zoroastrianism. Ahura Mazda, main Persian deity representing light, truth, and justice. Arhiman, represented darkness and evil. Constant struggle between evil and good. Zoroastrianism still exists today. -Persians adopted coinage technology from Lydia and minted golden ***daric coins.*** **[Lecture 4: Greece from the Dark Ages to the Archaic Period (ca. 800-500 BCE)]** -'Dark Ages' of Greece ca. 1200/1100 to 800 BCE: No writing, population decline, small settlements, houses made up of perishable materials. -Simple political organization in these small settlements: Basileus (βασιλεύς) 'King', (pl. Basileis), Boule (Βουλή) 'Council'. -The Archaic Period ca. 800-500 BCE. -Signs of population increase ca. 800, more land is cultivated and inhabited. Writing reappears in Greece: Phoenician alphabet is adopted and modified. Amon first writings in the 8^th^ century is Homer: Story of the Trojan War, (*Iliad* and *Odyssey*). Also, **Hesiod:** ***Theogony*, *Works and Days*: Accounts of the creation of the world, and the place of gods and humans in it** -New type of political organization: the polis (πόλις), plural: poleis (πόλεις): 'city-state'. A polis comprises an *Astu* 'urban center', a *chora* 'countryside' and an *agora* 'place of assembly, marketplace'. -A polis is a fully independent state with its own military, calendar, political, and religious institutions. Citizens identity with their polis: one is Athenian, Corinthian, Spartan... -Growth in population leads to shortage of land in Greece. Many people are forced to emigrate and find a living elsewhere: Greek 'Colonization' in the Mediterranean ca. 730-550 BCE. As a result, many new independent poleis are founded throughout the Mediterranean, notably in Sicily, Italy, and North Africa. -During that period, Greeks used a type of ship called a Penteconter (Fifty-oared ship). -Massalia/Marseilles was founded by the Phocaeans who fled Asia Minor to escape the Persians. They became pirates and eventually founded Massalia (now in southern France). -In Greece, development of the Hoplite Phalanx. Hoplites are small farmers who provide their own equipment in times of war and fight in a tight formation called the phalanx. Equipment affordable enough to talk of a sort of 'middle class'. -'Age of Tyrants' ca. 650-500. Many Greek poleis are ruled by one strongman. Some of these tyrants rule with the support of the 'hoplite class' that they favour at the expense of the aristocrats who traditionally monopolized political power. \- Many poleis develop political regimes in which citizens who can afford hoplite equipment have full political rights and access to the public assembly. -Tyrants tend to favour the 'hoplite class' and the common people. -Pheidon, 'Tyrant' of Argos ca. 710-670. Used the support of the hoplite class to become tyrant. -Cypselus, 'Tyrant' of Corinth 657--627. Used the support of the merchant class to become tyrant. -Greek religion: Greeks are polytheistic, believe in many gods. Twelve 'main gods' dwell on Mount Olympus. Most important ritual act in Greek religion is animal sacrifice to the gods. -Development of Greek philosophy: School of Miletus. Attempts to explain the origin of the world with rational rather than divine causes as found in the works of Hesiod. -Example of Thales of Miletus 624-546 BCE: Water was the essence of all matters. Olympic Games: 776 BCE -- 394 CE In honour of Zeus. Religious and athletic competitions for all Greeks. Most famous of all the Panhellenic (for all Greeks) events. **[Lecture 5: Sparta, Athens, and the Classical Age (ca. 500-400 BCE)]** -Classical Period ca. 500-323 BCE. First generation of Greek historians: -Herodotus, ca. 484--425 BCE. First historian. Wrote a history of the Wars between the Greeks and the Persians. -Thucydides, ca. 460 -- c. 411 BCE. Wrote the History of the Peloponnesian War between Athens and Sparta. Considered more critical than Herodotus. -Xenophon, 430-354 BCE. *Hellenica*: History of Greece from 411 to 362 BCE. -Sparta (Lacedaemonia). Spartans thought that Lycurgus, a mythical law-giver, gave them their political institutions: the Great Rhetra, guaranteeing *Eunomia*, 'good order'. -'Mixed constitution' of Sparta: **Two** **Kings, *Gerousia*** 'Council', **Ephors** 'Custodians', ***Apella** '*Assembly'. -All Spartan male citizens had to undergo the *Agoge*: 'Spartan military training regime' and join a *Syssition* (pl. *Syssitia*) 'Communal dining hall'. Spartan male citizens thus became professional soldiers. -Helots, agricultural slaves from Messenia, provided the Spartans with food by working the fields. Sparta was thus a slave society. -Helots heavily outnumbered Spartans, who were in constant fear of Helot revolts. -Spartan women also exercised at state expense to deliver healthy babies. They had more freedom than elsewhere in Greece. -Sparta was at the head of the Peloponnesian League, an alliance of poleis following Sparta's leadership. -464 BCE Earthquake in Sparta: Sparks large scale Helot revolt. Kills thousands of Spartans. -Number of Spartan citizens was never that high and suffered attrition throughout the Classical period. -Athens, located in Attica. In the Archaic period: Eponymous (Chief) Archon 'Chief official', Archon Polemarch 'Military Commander-in-chief', Archon Basileus 'Chief religious official', + 6 Archons Enforcers and Law-Givers, all positions reserved or aristocrats. -Hectemoroi peasants 'those who pay a sixth' could be sold into slavery if they fell into debt. -Draco's Code of Law 621. Attempt to codify laws, Harsh penalties for simple offences. Not successful but establishes that justice should be dispensed by the state and not by individuals. Solon ca. 638-558 BCE. Tasked with reforming the political system of Athens to solve social and economic issues. -Replaces birth with wealth as criterion for access to political office: Timocratic system (from Greek τιμή timē, \"price, worth\" and -κρατία -kratia, \"rule\"). -Creates property classes: Pentakosiomedimnoi 'five-hundred-bushelers', Hippeis 'Horsemen', Zeugitai 'Yoke-men', Thetes 'wage labourers'. Only the richest class has access to archonship. -Creates an assembly (*ecclesia*), and council (*boule*). -Forbids to export wheat to keep price of food low. -There afterwards conflicts for access to the archonship. Peisistratus (ca. 608-527) attempts to become tyrant three times. First two attempts are short lived but third successful. -Hippias succeeds his father as tyrant. Harmodius and Aristogeiton kill his brother Hipparchus in 514 because of a private feud. Yet, the Athenians remember them as the 'tyrant slayers' (Tyrannicides). -Spartan intervention forced Hippias to leave Athens in 510. -Isagoras and Cleisthenes feud for the archonship in 507. Isagoras calls the Spartan king **Cleomenes** for help. **Cleomenes comes to Athens and supports** Isagoras, expels Cleisthenes. However, the population of Athens revolts and drives **Cleomenes and** Isagoras **out of Athens.** -Cleisthenes returns and conducts reforms that create Athenian democracy. -He removes the power of the Phratries, aristocratic-led organizations controlling local government in pre-democratic Athens. He gives their power to demes, which are democratically run local organizations. -Creation of three sectors: Coast, City, Plain. Each sector divided in ten trittyes (30 in total). Creation of ten new tribes. -Ten Tribes. Each composed of three trittyes (one from each of the three regions, Coast, Plain, City). -Reformed *Boule*: 500 members, 50 from each tribe, elected annually. Carries out the policies of the Assembly (Ecclesia). Thetes excluded. -Reformed *Ecclesia* 'Assembly'. Open to all adult male Athenian citizens. Main policy-making body in Athens. -Ionian Revolt (499). The Greek ruler of Miletus, (inside Persian Empire), Aristagoras, attacks the island Naxos, fails, and then talks the Greek cities of Ionia into revolting against Persia. He asks the Athenians or help, which is granted. Together, the Ionians and the Athenians burn the regional Persian capital of Sardis. -In the end, the Persians crush the revolt. King Darius wants to punish the Athenians for helping the Ionians. He sends an army which is defeated by the Athenians at the Battle of Marathon (490). Darius dies of natural causes in 486 before he can punish the Athenians. -His son Xerxes continues his father's plan. He invades Greece but is defeated at Salamis (480), and Plataea (479). The Greeks maintain their independence. -Creation of the Delian League in 477. Several Greek poleis ask Athens to become head of this alliance for defense against Persia. Every member is supposed to contribute money to a common treasury to fund a common army and fleet. -However, Athens ends up using the League or its own interest. -454: Athens takes over the Delian Treasury and moves it to Athens. Forces League members to stay in the league and keep paying money to Athens used to maintain a large fleet and beautify Athens. -Peloponnesian War: 431-404 BCE Athens vs Sparta. Spartans were afraid of the growing power of Athens. Sparta wins after a long struggle, and benefitting from Persian funds. Spartan Hegemony over Greece: 404-371 BCE. **[Lecture 6: Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic World]** -Spartan Hegemony 404-371 BCE -Victory of Thebes at Battle of Leuctra 371, establishes Theban hegemony (371-362 BCE) -Battle of Mantinea 362 BCE, bloody draw, neither Sparta nor Thebes clear winner. No hegemonic power in Greece. -Philip II of Macedon (r. 359--336 BCE) transforms Macedon into superpower. -Reforms the army, creates Macedonian phalanx, designs new siege engines. -Third Sacred War 356-346 BCE. Phocians accused by Thebans of cultivating land sacred to Apollo. Phocians fined but cannot pay, they seize the treasury of Delphi, raise an army of mercenaries. Thebans are reduced to ask Philip II for help. He defeats the Phocians, becomes famous in Greece for this. -The Athenian statesman Demosthenes calls the Greeks to resist Philip. -Fourth Sacred War 339--338. Philip defeats Athenians and Thebans at Battle of Chaeronea 338. He gains hegemony over Greece. -Philip creates the League of Corinth 338, a Macedon-led alliance to attack the Persian Empire. -Assassination of Philip II in 336. His son Alexander succeeds him. -Alexander attacks the Persian Empire (334). Defeats the Persians twice and is proclaimed son of the god Amun-Ra at the Oracle of Siwa in Egypt. -Alexander wins the decisive Battle of Gaugamela (331), is then able to capture the cities of Babylon and Persepolis. -Alexander keeps going east, reaches India and wins the costly Battle of the Hydaspes in 326 against King Porus. -Alexander's army mutinies and refuses to continue, soldiers want to go home. Alexander is forced to come back west. -He falls ill and dies in Babylon in 323. -He did not name a successor. His generals become locked in wars for the empire for four decades. **[Lecture 7: Hellenistic Kingdoms]** -Wars of the Successors (322-275 BCE): Alexander's generals fight for several decades to claim his empire, none succeeds entirely. -Three main Successor dynasties emerge: Ptolemaic Dynasty in Egypt, founded by Ptolemy I Soter, Seleucid Kingdom in the Near East, founded by Seleucos I Nicator; Antigonid Dynasty in macedon, founded by Antigonos I Monophthalmos. -The Ptolemaic and Seleucid kingdoms, governed by a Greek-speaking king and elite minority, rule over a large non-Greek population. -Hellenistic kings must prove their worth by winning victories in war, to show they supported by the goddesses of luck and victory. -They are also expected to be generous and to help communities in need, for example to pay for public buildings such as city walls, theaters, temples, etc. -This period sees important scientific achievements, notable by Eratosthenes calculating the circumference of the earth, and Aristarchus of Samos presenting one of the first heliocentric models. -Philosophical schools try to achieve Ataraxia (ἀταραξία): absence of troubles in the soul and body; Apatheia (ἀπάθεια): absence of feelings that could break inner calm. -Cynicism: Rejection of human conventions, only acknowledges laws of nature. Virtue is the essential basic quality. -Scepticism: Our senses deceive us, certainty is impossible. One must reach the absence of trouble in the soul by suspending one's judgement. -Epicureanism: It is necessary to avoid trouble to achieve happiness. Moderation in everything. Simple pleasures. The gods do not play a role in life's events. -Stoicism: Accept your fate because you cannot change it. Everything has been preordained by the gods. -Many cults interact with each other in the Hellenistic period and people adopt foreign gods and include them in their own pantheon. **[Lecture 8: Early Rome and the Roman Republic]** -Livy main source for early Rome, mixes legends with history. -All sources for very early Roman history are from much later authors, no contemporary written evidence. -Romans thought they were first ruled by kings. -Romans thought they drove out the last king after his son raped Lucretia and they then established the Republic. -Tensions between: Plebeians and Patricians. Patricians monopolize office holding. -The Struggle of the Orders: Establishment of a mixed Patrician-Plebeian aristocracy. Traditional dates: 494 BCE to 287 BCE. Plebeians gain access to high office. -Laws of the Twelve Tables published in 451 BCE. -Rome's 'mixed constitution': magistrates, senate, popular assemblies. -Annual offices: Consuls, Praetor, Aediles, Quaestors. Office of Dictator (6 months). -Senate only consults popular assembly when it wants something done. -*Comitia* *Centuriata* (main legislative assembly): 193 voting *centuriae* (centuries) 98 centuries for the first richest two classes: they have absolute majority. Mostly votes yes to senate proposals. -Capture of Veii 396 BC: Significant growth of Roman power. Massive land grab. Rome becomes important power in central Italy. -Gallic Sack of Rome 390: Important setback but city not destroyed. Gauls pillage it and leave quickly. -Rome develops the legion, in which citizens arm themselves at their own expense. Rich are the cavalry, middling men heavy infantry, poor are skirmishers. -First Samnite War: 343-341 BCE, Rome chooses to answer the call for help from Capua against the Samnites. Result: *status quo ante bellum*. -Latin War of 340-338. Latin allies revolt against Rome. Latin Settlement of 338: they are brought back in line. Have to provide troops for the Roman army. -Second (or Great) Samnite War 326 - 304 BCE. Roman defeat at the Caudine Forks 321. They do not give up. Construction of the Appian Way: 312. Connecting Rome to Capua for military purposes. Rome wins. -Third Samnite War 298-290 BCE. Decisive Defeat of Remaining Italian Peoples Resisting Rome. Most of Italy under Roman control, except Gauls in north, and Greek cities in south. -City of Tarentum in southern Italy calls Pyrrhus of Epirus for help against Rome. He first wins 'Pyrrhic Victories' (costly victories) against the Romans but is never able to force them to surrender. In the end, Pyrrhus is defeated and leaves Italy for good. -First Punic War 264-241: Rome and Carthage fight for naval supremacy and Sicily. Long, brutal, and costly war. Rome wins, annexes Sicily, Corsica, Sardinia. Carthage pays war indemnity. -Second Punic War 218-201: Carthaginian general Hannibal invades Italy. Inflicts terrible defeats on Rome (Trebia, Trasimene), worst is Cannae 216. Philip V of Macedon become ally to Hannibal, triggers First Macedonian War (fought in Greece between Rome's Greek allies and Macedon). Rome manages to hold, counter-attacks against Carthaginian possessions in Spain under general Scipio. -Hannibal recalled to defend Carthaginian homeland: he is defeated by Scipio at the Battle of Zama 202. Carthage surrenders, must pay huge war indemnity. -**Second Macedonian War (200-197): Rome declares war on Philip V, Flamininus defeats him.** -Roman--Seleucid War 192- 188 (aka Syrian War): Seleucid King intervenes in Greece, Rome defeats him. Seleucid Kingdom must evacuate Asia Minor and pay indemnities (**Peace of Apamea 188**). -Third Macedonian War (171-168). Rome concludes that King Perseus of Macedon is rearming and declares war. Perseus is defeated, the Macedonian monarchy is abolished. Macedon is divided in four parts. -Fourth Macedonian War 150-148. Revolt in Macedon against Rome. Rome crushes it. Macedon becomes a Roman province (146). -Greek revolt 146: against (aka Achaean War). Sack of Corinth. Greece is conquered by Rome. -Third Punic War 149-146: Sack of Carthage. End of Carthage as an independent state. -Gracchi Brothers: Tiberius and Gaius. Try to propose distribution of public land to the poor, by pass the senate to propose law directly to the popular assembly. Senate takes offence and both brothers are killed in street fighting. -Division in politics between ***Optimates*** 'Literally: The best ones. Those who are more conservative and want the senate to be the most important political body' and ***Populares*** 'Those who rely more on popular support and the popular assemblies to further their political career'. **[Lecture 9: From the Late Republic to the Principate]** -Gaius Marius: 'new man' (first of his family to reach consulship). Served as consul seven times. Did not reform the army. -Was a successful general: fought in Africa, then defeated the Cimbri and Teutones invasions in 102-101. -Social War 91-87 BCE: Rome's Italian allies revolt. Rome prevails by a combination of diplomacy and warfare. All Italians receive Roman citizenship. -In 88, Sulla is tasked to wage war against Mithridates VI King of Pontus who has invaded Rome's eastern provinces. However, Marius wants this command too and he drives Sulla out of Rome. Sulla uses his army to march on Rome against Marius and forces him to flee the city. -Sulla then goes on to fight Mithridates (First Mithridatic War 89-85 BCE). He is largely successful but while he is away, his political enemies return to Rome. Sulla quickly concludes peace with Mithridates to be able to go to Italy confront his political enemies. -Sulla defeats his political enemies in a civil war in Italy. He makes proscriptions lists (rich citizens that wronged him). Anyone can kill those on the list and receive a reward from Sulla. Sulla confiscates the property of those listed. -Sulla decreases the power of the tribune of the plebs, wants the senate to be the main policy maker of the Republic. He then retires (80 BCE) and dies shortly after (78 BCE). -Revolt of Spartacus 73-71 BCE. Gladiator revolt led by Spartacus, gather many followers. Defeats first Roman armies sent against him. Crassus (richest man in Rome) is able to defeat Spartacus. -Pompey receives an extraordinary command to eradicate the pirate threat in the Mediterranean (67 BCE). He succeeds quite quickly. -Pompey then manages to have himself appointed commander in chief of the Third Mithridatic War (73-63 BCE). He defeats Mithridates and reorganizes the eastern Mediterranean. -He creates new provinces and puts an end to the declining Seleucid Kingdom (turned into province of Syria). -Back in Rome, consul Cicero manages to thwart the coup d'état attempt by nobleman Catiline. -Pompey returns to Italy covered in glory, but plays by the rules and steps down from his command. -In 60, creation of the First Triumvirat, private arrangement between Caesar, Crassus, and Pompey. They agree to further each other's careers. They essentially control the Republic. -Caesar obtains a command in Gaul (roughly modern day France), where he remains for almost ten years, conquering it. We possess Caesar's writings about his campaigns. -Crassus becomes jealous of Caesar's success. He also wants great command. He demands and obtains the governorship of Syria. He attacks the neighbouring Parthians but he is defeated and killed at the Battle of Carrhae 53 BCE. Caesar and Pompey are left face to face. -Caesar is ordered by the senate to disband in army and return to Gaul as most senators are afraid that Caesar might become another Sulla. -Caesar refuses to disband his army and invades Italy in 49 BCE. The senate asks Pompey to defend the Republic against a tyrant but Caesar's advance is so fast that Pompey and the senate have to flee from Italy to Greece. -Caesar follows Pompey and defeats him at the Battle of Pharsalus in Greece, (48 BCE). Pompey survives and flees to Egypt where the teenage king Ptolemy XIII has him killed, wanting to please Caesar. -Caesar arrives in Egypt, pursuing Pompey. He becomes involved in the dynastic struggle between the siblings Ptolemy XIII and Cleopatra VII who both want to rule Egypt alone. Caesar starts a relationship with Cleopatra and supports her claim for the throne. -After the arrival of his army, Caesar is able to defeat the army of Ptolemy XIII, who dies in the out. He puts Cleopatra on the throne of Egypt. He then leaves Egypt to go fight supporters of Pompey for the next few years. -Having eliminated all of his opponents in battle, Caesar is named Dictator for life in early 44 BCE. He plans to a campaign against the Parthians but is assassinated in March 44 BCE by senators who thought he was going to name himself king. -Brutus and Cassius, the ringleaders of the faction that killed Caesar, flee Italy because they have no troops or popular support. They underestimated how Caesar was loved by the common people of Rome. -Formation of the **Second Triumvirate 43 BCE. Two former generals of Caesar, Lepidus and Mark Antony, along with Cesar's adopted heir and nephew, Octavian, make an alliance in order to go after** Brutus and Cassius. This is ratified by the senate. -Brutus and Cassius are defeated at the Battle of Philippi and they kill themselves (Macedon, 42 BCE). -Mark Antony's plans and launches campaign against the Parthians in 36 BCE. He starts a relationship whit Cleopatra before this. His campaign fails and he becomes heavily dependent on Cleopatra's funding. -Donations of Alexandria 34 BCE: Mark Antony plans to give half the Roman provinces to the children of Cleopatra! This angers Octavian in Rome who depicts Mark Antony as having lost his 'Romaness', bewitched by a manipulative and seductive queen. -War breaks out between Octavian and Mark Antony, supported by Cleopatra. The couple's forces are defeated at the Battle of Actium (31 BCE). -Mark Antony and Cleopatra all back to Egypt. Octavian chases them and they both commit suicide. Octavian conquers Egypt and becomes Rome's first emperor (*princeps*). **[Lecture 10: The Early Roman Empire ca. 27 BCE - 192 CE]** -Augustus tries to make Romans believe that he restored the Republic, does not want to appear like a monarch. -Accumulates special powers: permanent *tribunicia* *potestas* (power of a tribune of the plebs), *imperium proconsulare maius*, (greater *imperium* than consuls and other magistrates, makes him commander in chief of the Roman army). -In the inscription *Res gestae divi Augusti* (The Deeds of the Divine Augustus), he emphasizes that he gained his powers through universal consent, legally. He boasts that he restored peace after decades of civil war. -He demobilizes and settles 300,000 Roman citizens who had been recruited as soldiers during the civil wars. He gives them land to settle. -He creates a professional standing army, replacing the old citizen-militia system, along with military treasury to fund it. -He includes troops of auxiliary units (made up of non-Roman inhabitants of the empire), forming about half the army (other half is made up of legions of Roman citizens). -He creates the Praetorian Guard (Emperors' Personal Guard), the *Vigiles* (firefighting and watchmen), and the *Cohortes Urbanae* (police force) for Rome. -Expansion in Germania is stopped by defeat at the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest (9 CE) where a former auxiliary Germanic commander betrays Rome and ambushes three legions. -Augustus dies in 14 CE and is succeeded by Tiberius. -Tiberius is described by the sources as having a decent first half of reign, but is then depicted as an old miser, cruel and pervert. He fell ill and might have been suffocated to allow his successor access to the throne. -Tiberius dies in 37 CE and is succeeded by Gaius 'Caligula'. Might have been a sociopath... Erratic decisions, such as naming his horse senator. Antagonized the senate and was murdered in 41 CE. -Claudius succeeds him. Supposedly found hiding behind a curtain and proclaimed emperor by the Praetorians. Claudius is an intellectual devoid of political and military experience. Tries to prove himself a competent general by invading Britannia (43 CE). -His wife Valeria Messalina is executed, and Claudius marries **Agrippina. She plots to kill Claudius and ensure her son Nero becomes the next emperor. She poisons Claudius who dies in 54. She takes her son Nero to the** Praetorians who proclaim him emperor. -Nero is only a teenager and **Agrippina rules by herself at the beginning of his reign. Once a grown up, he enters into conflict with her. He finally has her killed.** **-Nero becomes engaged in the arts and competes as a charioteer. This breaks established social norms and antagonizes the senate.** -First Jewish Revolt 66-73: Nero sends general Vespasian sent to suppress the revolt. -The governor of Spain, Galba, revolts against Nero, the senate declares Nero a public enemy. He commits suicide. -'Year of the Four Emperors' (68-69): civil war as emperors are made and unmade in battle: Galba, Otho, Vitellius, and Vespasian rule in turn. -**Vespasian prevails in the end. He rules for ten years (69-79). He celebrates his victory over the Jews. Starts construction of the Colosseum.** -Succeeded by his son Titus. Brief rule (79-81), sees the destruction of Pompey through the eruption of the Vesuvius. -Succeeded by his brother **Domitian. Increases army pay and leads a few campaigns to show off. Apparently had a difficult relation with the senate. He ends up assassinated.** -The senate chooses an old respected senator, Nerva (rules **96-98**), to succeed Domitian. Quickly dies of old age but appoints Trajan, an experienced general, as successor. -Trajan is a great conqueror. He conquers the kingdom of Dacia (roughly modern-day Romania) in two wars (101-106). -He then attacks the Parthians and nearly conquers their kingdom entirely (113-117). -The empire reaches his greatest extent under his rule. \- Second Jewish Revolt (a.k.a. The Diaspora Revolt):115-117 CE. This forces Trajan to stop his campaign. He dies in 117 and his generals put down the revolt. -Romans remember Trajan as the best emperor. -Succeeded by his adopted successor **Hadrian. He abandons Trajan's conquest in the east (not Dacia). Travels around the provinces for most of his reign. Builds** **Hadrian's Wall in Britain (117km long fortification).** -Third Jewish War a.k.a. Bar Kokhba Revolt 132-136: Led by a messianic figure, the revolt is brutally repressed by Hadrian. -Succeeded by his adopted successor **Antoninus Pius (ruled 138-161). Quiet reign. Probably the emperor you want to have a beer with.** -Succeeded by his adopted successor **Marcus Aurelius (ruled 161-180). Although a peaceful philosopher, he is forced to spend most of his reign on the battlefield, defending the empire from invasions.** -Appoints Lucius Verus as co-emperor. He is tasked with dealing with a Parthian invasion. After repelling the Parthians, major outbreak of plague, massive number of deaths. -Marcomannic Wars (166-180): Massive Germanic invasions. **Marcus Aurelius has to sell imperial property to fund the war.** -He dies in 180 while still on the front. Succeeded by his young son Commodus **(aged 18-19). Commodus quickly makes peace with the Germans to eb able to return to Rome.** -Does not seem interested in being emperor. Leaves public business and governance to advisors so that he can party, re-enact mythology, and pretends he is Hercules... -Antagonizes the senate and is strangled in his bath by a hired wrestler (192). **[Lecture 11: The Severan Dynasty, The Third Century Crisis]** -Year of the Five Emperors: 193. -Pertinax is killed by the Praetorians. They make **Didius Julianus** emperor. Several governors proclaim themselves emperor: **Clodius Albinus in Britannia**, **Septimius Severus in Pannonia, Pescennius Niger in Syria.** **-Septimius Severus moves towards Rome, Didius Julianus is assassinated. Septimius Severus occupies Rome, chooses to make an alliance with Clodius Albinus, then turns against Pescennius Niger and defeats him. He then eventually turns against Clodius Albinus and defeats him in turn.** -**Septimius Severus** supposedly gave this advice to his sons: 'Be harmonious, enrich the soldiers, and scorn all other men'. -**His sons Caracalla and Geta were supposed to rule together but Caracalla has Geta killed and rules alone.** -Through the *Constitutio Antoniniana* of 212, Caracalla gives all free inhabitants of the empire Roman citizenship, mostly to increase tax revenue. Caracalla is assassinated in 217. -Elagabalus (r. 218-222), tried to impose his Syrian god in the empire. He antagonized the senate and soldiers. Was murdered. -Severus Alexander (r. 222-235), very young, his mother Julia Mamaea effectively in charge. Severus Alexander and Julia Mamaea are killed in an army mutiny in Germany instigated by Maximinus Thrax, who becomes emperor (235). -Coup d'état in the Parthian kingdom, replaced by Sassanid Persia from 224 CE. Much more dangerous foe since more centralized. -Third Century Crisis: 235-284. Invasions, economic crisis, political instability, emperors are murdered with alarming repetition. -New enemies appear on borders: Alamanni, Franks, Goths... -*Historia Augusta* (Late fourth century?) collection of imperial biographies of unequal value, dubious authorship. Sometimes has to be used for lack of other sources. -Maximinus Thrax (r. 235-238), rose through the ranks of the army. Is murdered after a short reign. -**Philip the Arab (r. 244-249), is defeated and killed by Decius, who becomes emperor...** -Decius (r. 249-251). Initiates persecutions against Christians because they refuse to sacrifice to the emperor and the gods. Killed in battle by the Goths! -Valerian (r. 253-260) with Gallienus (son and co-ruler). Valerian is captured by the Persians at the **Battle of Edessa in 260 under King Shapor!** -Separatist Gallic Empire under Postumus (260-268). -Another part of the empire breaks of under Queen Zenobia of Palmyra in the east. Valerian's son Gallienus is unable to recover this. -Claudius Gothicus (r. 268-270) Wins the Battle of Naissus in 268 Victory over the Goths. Eases pressure on the Danube front but Claudius dies of the plague. -Aurelian (r. 270-275) improves the fortifications of Rome. Defeats Queen Zenobia in 271 and recovers the east. Willingly evacuates Dacia in 272. He puts an end to the Gallic Empire in 274 and reunifies the empire. Is assassinated. **[Lecture 12: From the Tetrarchy to Theodosius I (284-395 CE)]** **-Diocletian** (r. 284-305), puts an end to the Third Century Crisis. Maximian appointed co-emperor in 286. -Creation of the Tetrarchy ('Rule of four'): **Diocletian** and Maximian as Augusti (senior emperors), Constantius Chlorus and Galerius as Caesars (junior emperors). **Diocletian and** Galerius take care of the east, Maximian and Constantius Chlorus the west. -Emperors are now referred as *dominus* (lord). -Creation of the *Dux* (pl. *Duces*). 'Commander of a Border Sector'. Attempt at better coping with raids on the border. -Provinces grouped into Dioceses (groups of provinces) under a Vicarius (pl. Vicarii), in charge of a diocese. -Edict of Maximum Prices 301. Attempt at coping with inflation. -Great Persecutions against Christians (303-311 CE) (also last ones). Mostly sponsored y Galerius, who calls them off in his later years. -Diocletian willingly retires and in 305 and forces Maximian to do the same. Constantius Chlorus and Galerius become Augusti, and take Severus and Maximinus Daia as Caesar. (Constantius Chlorus+Severus), (Galerius+Maximinus Daia). -However, Constantius Chlorus **dies in 306 and his son Constantine proclaims himself emperor.** Maximian's son **Maxentius does the same! Severus is killed!** -Diocletian comes out of retirement and summons a meeting at Carnuntum to settle the emperor situation. The result: **WEST: Licinius (Augustus), Constantine (Caesar), EAST: Galerius (Augustus),** **Maximinus Daia (Caesar). Maxentius is not recognized.** -Galerius dies in 311. Constantine defats and kills Maxentius in 312 at the Battle of Milvian Bridge. He claims he had vision of the Christian god promising him victory. -Licinius defeats Maximinus Daia and gains sole control of the east. Only Constantine left (West), and Licinius (East). -Solidus (309). New Gold Coinage Helps stabilize the economy. -Edict of Milan 313. Constantine and Licinius issue an edict of religious toleration recognizing Christianity as a legitimate religion. -The Christian Church acquires land and wealth under Constantine I, although he never stops worshipping other deities as well. -Conflict between Licinius and Constantine. Licinius is defeated and put to death in 325. Constantine sole emperor. -Council of Nicaea 325: "Father, Son, and Holy Spirit have the same essence": Nicene Creed. Condemns Arianism which stated that Jesus was of an inferior essence to God the Father since he took human form. -Creation of the Magister militum (plural: Magistri) 'Master of the Soldiers'. Regional generals in charge of the forces present in several provinces under their command. -Foundation of Constantinople 324 (Formerly Byzantium). A new imperial capital. -Ammianus Marcellinus (ca. 330-400). Historian, wrote a history of the Roman Empire of which the accounts from 354 to 378 survive. Greek was his first language, wrote in Latin, was a soldier and 'Pagan'. Most important source or the late fourth century. -Succession of Constantine between his three sons: West: Constantine II r. 337-340; Center: Constans r. 337--350; East: Constantius II r. 337-361. -Constantine II attacks Constans but is defeated and killed. Constans is overthrown by the usurper Magnentius in 350. Magnentius is defeated at the Battle of Mursa in 353 by Constantius II who becomes sole emperor. Julian appointed Caesar by Constantius II to defend Gaul. Wins the Battle of Strasbourg (357) against the Alamanni. Julian is then proclaimed Augustus (360) by his troops! Constantius II dies of natural causes, making Julian *de facto* the only emperor. -Julian r. 360-363, is the last non-Christian emperor. Tries to reform the organization of the cult of the old gods. Opposed to Christians, but does not persecute them. -Dies during a campaign against the Persians. -Valentinian I (r. 364-375). Rules over the Western Part of the Empire. His brother Flavius Valens in the East (r. r. 364-378). Valentinian reinforces the borders, is tolerant in religious matters. Dies in 375 after yelling at Germanic ambassadors... -Gratian (r. 375-383). Son and successor to Valentinian I in the west. Valens still in the east. -Goths, Huns and the 'Domino Theory'. Huns, eastern nomads who started to move towards Europe for unknown reasons. Pushed other peoples in their path, among them the Goths. Thousands of them try to scape the Huns by seeking asylum in the eastern part of the Roman Empire. -Flavius Valens agrees to let the Goths in. They are to be settled in the empire and in exchange they are to provide troops to the Roman army. -Roman officials behave harshly and try starve the Goths and assassinate their leaders. They revolt and defeat the troops of these officials. -Flavius Valens comes back from the Persian border to deal with the situation. Poor planning and scouting lead Valens to be defeated and killed by the Goths at the Battle of Adrianople (378). -General Theodosius fights the Goths but is unable to defeat them. He makes a *foedus* (treaty) with them granting them settlement in the empire. -Theodosius becomes emperor in the east (r. 379-395). In the west, Gratian is overthrown by Magnus Maximus (usurper in west 383-388), who is defeated in turn by Theodosius I who puts Valentinian II in power in the west. -Valentinian II is controlled by general Arbogast. Valentinian II dies in 392, apparently by suicide. Arbogast appoints Eugenius as emperor in the west. This is not accepted by Theodosius who again comes back to the west, to defeat Arbogast and Eugenius at the Battle of the Frigidus in 394 (a.ka. Frigid River). Theodosius becomes sole emperor. -Theodosius forbids sacrifices to all religions except Christianity: makes Christianity the only tolerated and official religion of the empire. Abolishes some old cults. -Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, humiliated Theodosius for his role in the massacre of Thessalonica in 390 by forcing him to do penance to be readmitted in the church. -His sons succeed him: Honorius in the west (r. 393-423); Arcadius in the east (r. 395-408), with Stilicho, *Magister militum* and regent of the throne until 408 because of their young age. **[Lecture 13: The End of the Western Roman Empire, the Byzantine Empire ca. 395-565]** -All [western] emperors after Theodosius are mere figure heads as *magistri militum* are doing the heavy liting. -Stilicho makes a *foedus* with Alaric, Gothic king. The Goths are to receive supplies and pay while they provide troops to the Roman army. -Another Gothic king, Radagaisus, invades Italy in 405-406. Stilicho defeats him but he needed to strip the Rhine frontier of many units to do so. -Several Germanic groups penetrate into the Empire by crossing the Rhine in late December 406. -Stilicho is killed (408) through the treachery of the court official Olympius who pretends that Stilicho was conspiring against Honorius. -Many of Stilicho's soldiers who were of foreign origin join the Goths of Alaric. The death of Stilicho prevents the terms of the *foedus* to be honoured. -Alaric invades Italy to pressure the Western Empire into honourin the terms of the *foedus*, to no avail. Alaric takes Rome in 410 and sacks it. Alaric dis the same year. -Augustine writes the *City of God*. Written in defence of Christianity in response to supporters of the old gods who claims that Rome's sack was because the Romans have abandoned their traditional deities. Augustine claims these old gods offer no protection in this life or in the next. -Roman Abandonment of Britannia ca. 410. Army and administration leave civilians to fend for themselves. -Some Goths are settled by treaty: Visigothic Kingdom ca. 418 - 720 CE. South of Gaul and most of Spain. -Vandal Migration. King Geiseric (r. 428-477). The Vandals, after crossing the Rhine, make their way into North Africa and establish the Vandal Kingdom in Africa, 435-534. This deprives Rome of crucial grain resources. -Attila the Hun (r. 434--453). King of the Huns, raids the Eastern Roman Empire, is paid off to leave. Attacks the Western Roman Empire in 451. -Flavius Aetius, *magister militum*, assembles an army of Romans and Visigoths and defeats Attila at the Battle of the Catalaunian Fields (a. k. a. Mauriac Plain). Attila is however not decisively defeated. -Attila then turns towards Italy (452). After pillaging several cities in northern Italy, he turns away as he was being threatened by Flavius Aetius and an army from the Eastern Roman Empire. -Flavius Aetius is assassinated by Emperor Valentinian III due to jealous court officials having convinced the emperor that Aetius was going to proclaim himself emperor. -Vandals Sack Rome in 455. 468: Joint east and west Roman failure to reconquer Africa from the Vandals. Spells the doom of the west. -Romulus Augustulus 'Little Augustus'. Deposed in 476 by Odoacer (or Odovacar), Germanic warlord, sends the imperial insignia to Emperor Zeno in the east. **476** is the traditional date for the end of the Western Roman Empire. -What used to be the Western Roman Empire is replaced by the Visigothic Kingdom, the Vandal Kingdom, the Ostrogothic Kingdom (Italy), and the Kingdom of the Franks (Gaul). All of these are or become Christians and adopt many features of Roman culture and governance. -Edward Gibbon 1737-1794: *The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire* (1776-1789). Montesquieu (Charles-Louis de Secondat) 1689-1755: *Considerations on the Causes of the Greatness of the Romans and their Decline* (1734). Both authors obssed with the idea of moral decline leading to the fall of the Western Roman Empire. Both cast a long shadow even though no modern historian would now lend much credence to their thesis. -'Byzantine Empire' (From the name of Byzantium, the old Greek city on the site of Constantinople). Modern Term coined to designate the Eastern Roman Empire after the fall of the Western Roman Empire. The 'Byzantines' still called themselves 'Romans' (Romani/Ῥωμαῖοι) even if Rome was no longer part of the empire. -Justinian (r. 527-565). Eastern Roman/Byzantine Emperor. Last emperor to be a native Latin speaker. -Procopius ca. 507-565. Eastern Roman/Byzantine Historian: Author of *History of the Wars* and the *Secret History*. Most important source or the reign of Justinian. -Explains in the *Secret History* that he actually hates Justinian and Theodora, his wife, attacks their reputation through slander. -Nika Riots of Constantinople in 532. Much of the city burns down, the army is called in under **Belisarius, who kills the rioters.** -Justinianic Code, codifications of previous Roman laws in one code. -Hagia Sophia: Magnificent Church built under Justinian. -Campaigns of Belisarius against the Vandals 533-534: Destruction of the Vandal Kingdom, western north Africa is recovered. -Campaigns against the Ostrogoths in Italy, 536-553. Devastates Italy but destroys the kingdom of the Ostrogoths. Belisarius has to be recalled to fight the Persians. -Some conquests are made in southern Spain as well. -Outbreak of plague 541-543: kills massive numbers of people, perhaps 30% of the population dies. -Persian Attack 540: Capture of **Antioch.** -Justinian's Wars have exhausted the treasury and the empire. Most of the gains would be lost in the 6^th^ and 7^th^ centuries.