Work Psychology PDF

Work psychology Lecture 1 – Introduc6on to Work Psychology Origin - The Hawthorne Studies and Eﬀect Studies enhanced understanding of what mo6vates individuals in the workplace, in addic6on to economic needs, social needs play an important role in inﬂuencing work-related aBtudes and behaviour. Eﬀect – employees will perfom beGer when they feel singled out for special aGe6on or feel that management is concerned about employee welfare. Work Psychology ﬁels – Personnel psychology, organiza6onal psychology, occupa6onal health and safety, consumer psycology, Human factors and ergonomics and choaching psychology. What do Work Psychologists do? They can perform tasks such as study the working styles of managers and employees, observe and analyze workplace produc6vity, collaborate with management teams to advise new companies policies and HR teams, organize training sessions, work with hiring teams for cultural ﬁt, improve company eﬃciency and internal hierarchy, achieve high workplace quality and op6mal work-life balance, assist in company transi6ons. Research in Work Psychology? It is answering ques6ons and making decisions, research everyday life. Scien6ﬁc-Prac66oner Model – ac6ng as scen6sts when they conduct research and implemen6ng these into the actual organiza6ons as prac66oners – Evidence Based management “Common Sense” – is actually nothing more than a deposit of prejudices layed down in the mind prior to the age of eighteen.” A. Einstein – this is actually because people rely a lot on common sense when they shouldn’t, because it creates False beliefs. False beliefs – Anchoring bias (over relying into one ﬁrst piece of informa6on), Availability Heuris6c (overs6mate the importance of informa6on), Badwagon eﬀect (groupthink), Blind-spot bias (failing to recognize your own cogni6ve biases), Choice-suppor6ve bias (choices has ﬂaws), Clustering illusion (tendency to see paGerns in random events), Conﬁrma6on bias (only listen to informa6on that conﬁrm our preconcep6ons) and Conversa6sm bias ( slow to accept nem evidence). Individual diﬀerences – implicit theories help us make sense of the world around us and aﬀect out aBtudes towards people, are no basis for science of individual diﬀerences, Studies of individual diﬀerences is called diﬀeren6al psychology with Intelligence or Cogni6ve ability and Personality. Intellegence – general mental capability, involving reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, learn quickly and learn from experience. “It reﬂects a broader and deeper capability fro comprehending our surroiunding – catching-on, mking- sense of things or ﬁguring out how to use the informa6on we have gathered.” – Co\redson, 1997 IQ- intelligence quo6ent introduced in 20th’s by a german psychologist William Stern. Models of intelligence- Vernon - Verbal intelligence : readinf, hearing, speaking, wri6ng, deba6ng, discussion - Spa6cal ot mechanical intelligence : drawing, building, design, mazes and puzzles, looking at pictures, imagining. Models of intelligence – CaGel: Crustallized ability and Fluid Ability Models of intelligence – Spearman´s G – G is a strong overlap of performance on diﬀerent tasks due to an underlying factos. - General intelligence is connected with ﬂuid intelligence, crystalized intelligence, visual percep6on, perceptual speed, learing speed, learing and memory, idea6onal ﬂuency, knowledge achievement. Cogni6ve ability at work- helps acquire job knowledge beGer and faster. Theories of personality focus on individual diﬀerences in behaviour, thought and emo6on. Personality Models – The Big Five and The Myers-Briggs type indicator. The Myers-Briggs type indicator Cri6cism – Poor validity, poor reliability, dichotomies are not always independent, not comprehensive. The big ﬁve Cri6cism – atheore6cal, self reported, diﬀerent results based on context and 6ming, big six HEXACO honesty – humility. Personality diﬀerences - predicts job perfomance, certain traits to commitment, occupa6onal interests, team processes leadership behaviour. Individual diﬀerences – rela6ons of personality traits with work outcomes are considered sta6c and personality is always considered a predictor. Model of personality at work with TAT, or Trait Ac6va6on Theory proposes behaviour results from an interacrion between person and situa6on. This can result in perfomance demands change, norma6ve change, deepening and strengthening of traits and unique experiences. Model of personality at work with Dynamic development model of Woods. – personality traits in constabt interac6on with work-related ac6vi6es and environments, traits inﬂuence career choices and as demand change, diﬀerent raits inﬂuence performance and behaviour, and work becomes a core part of who we are. Note that… - Perfomance at work increases linearly in early stages of the job then plateus following ‘learning curve’, cogni6ve ability is cri6cal in learning phase. - A perfomance trajetory cruve or learing curve and the inﬂuence of individual diﬀerences ar diﬀerent 6mes. Lecture 2- Job Analysis and Recruitment 1. Job analysis – helps you to describe a job, employee selec6on, training, personpower planning, performance appraisal 1. Job descrip6on – jobs may change over6me and we need to update and explain what qualiﬁca6ons they needed, to avoid new tasks, or unwanted behaviour that may cost money - it is the key. Masculine gendered wording can perpetuate gender inequality. Gendered job descrip6ons alter percep6ons, lowering job appeal, sense of belongingness and likelihood. Women are less likely to applu to a job if their job descrip6on does not correspond 100% to their own goal, but man only need 60% 2. Employee Selec6on 3. Training – you need to train your employees to align to your own goals, for example to improve perfomance, to see what is wrong and correct it. 4. Performance appraisal – promo6on or ﬁnancial compensa6on, which respnsabili6es or tasks do you need to do to get that, to make sure that we have equallity and fairness within the job. Job descrip6on sec6ons- job 6tle, brief summary, work ac6vi6es, tools and equipment used, job context, work perfomance, compensa6on informa6on, job competencies. Descrip6on: How big is the company, how stressful is the environment, what is the possible salary, what compensa6ons do we have Basics steps of a job analysis Step 1: Iden6fy tasks performed Step 2: Write task statements – clear descrip6on eg. In macdonals, or polices only can shoot in speciﬁc situa6ons Step 3: Rate tasks statements Step 4: determinate essen6al KSAO’s – common competences and speciﬁca6ons Step 5: Select test to tap KSAO’s- you need to choose onde personality teste, depending on the job requirments or the people who is applying KSAO= knowledge, skill, ability, other characteris6cs - Knowledge = a body of informa6on needed to perfom a task- learn to know - Skill = the proﬁency to perfom a certain task – learn to do - Ability = a basic capacity for perfoming a wide range if diﬀerent tasks, accquiring a knowledge, or developing a skill – born with - Other characteris6cs = personal factors such as personality, willigness, interest, and mo6va6on and such tangible facors as licenses, degrees and year of experience. 2. Job evalua6on – the salary, or comparisons with diﬀerent jobs eg. Manager and nurse, or within an organiza6on. What factors make one job worth more than another? Level of responsaility, Physical demands, Mental demands, Educa6on requirments, Training and experience requeirments, Working condi6ons, Rarity of skills. The Ideal Compensa6on System: aGract and retain desired workers, mo6vate current employees while also providing security, equitable (internal and external equity) and in in compliace with legal guideline. o Wage trend line – This is not as ﬁxed as we think o Red line they are overpaid. o Underpaid normally are eg. In the case of nego6a6on of the job salary, or because masculines jobs and feminines discrimina6on. o Blue line – normal wage 3. Employee recru6ment- Internal and external - Formal or direct: media adver6sements, point of purchase, direct mail, employment agencies, college recruiters, computer databases, special events, employee referral programs - Informal or indirect: situa6on-wanted ads, direct applica6ons, employee referral Wri6ng recruitment ads o Realis6c – increased rete6on o Detailed – beGer ﬁt assessment o Explained process – mo6va6on to apply Eﬀec6ve recruitment strategy It gets the aGen6on of the public, screens unqualiﬁed applicants and mo6vates people to apply- it is cost eﬀec6ve and also 6mely. 4. Structured interviews- based on job analysis such as content validity, face validity and, low adverse impact about less biased. You don’t want candidates to feel uncomfortable, so you can make it less formal. Unstructured interviews- Lack of job relatedness, biased informa6on processing such as Primacy eﬀects, Contrast eﬀects, Nega6ve informa6on bias, interviewer-interviwee similarity, interviewee appearance and nonverbal cues. Common structures interview ques6ons? - Where do you see yourself in 5 years, what is your greatest strenghts and weaknesses? Why should I hire you? 5. Crea6ng and conduc6ong a structures interview 1. Determinate KSAO- talking, test and experience, with this you what to avoid some aspects 2. Create interview ques6ons- clariﬁers and disqualiﬁers (eg. Nightshivs, see wo is able and who is not) STAR= situa6on(introduce the situa6on and the context), task (task to complete, expecta6ons and challenges), ac6on(explain what you did and how), result(eﬀorts, outpur, accoplishments, rewards and imapact) Future-focused and Assessing Organiza6onal ﬁt (what is a work day look like day to you, do you imagine yousrself to be an extrvert within the organuza6on) 3. Create a scoring Key- eg. Applicant interviewer ra6ng sheet with ra6ng scales 0=no evidence, 1=Poor, 2=Average, 3= Good, 4=Excellent 4. Conduct the interview- one interviewer vs. panel interviewer, build rapport, explain, process, score aver each ques6on, informa6on about the job, allow 6me for ques6ons. Ques6ons you should not ask: - Private life: age, race, secual orienta6on, gender iden6ty, religion, pregnancy, family, or merital status - Health care - They can not see you social media- private informa6on - You can be ﬁred with your social media behaviour, be private about your work. Lecture 3 – Selec6on Methods and Decisions Selec6on of Methods – Main goal: Hiring the best candidates Reference checks – evaluate people past behaviour, diﬀeten6a6ng between diﬀerent types with this reference checks or a leGer of recommenda6on, to show how good you interacted with your collegues and let them know that your past experiences align with your possible new jobs. And WHY? To avoid fraude, for example dregree fraud in the resume, to make your you are not negla6on with aggressive behaviour or undisciplined. Some factors related with this are validity of references (low), reliability of references (low) and inﬂuenced by wri6ng style. Employee Selec6on Methods – Training and Educa6on, Experience, Skills, Knowledge and ability, personality and Character, interests and Medical. Training and Educa6on – we can have a person who has really good cogni6ve ability, but we need to see if the educa6on is aligned, use more factores to evaluate cogni6ve ability tests, they are really easy to administer and inexpensive, however they can create discrimina6on or genders and have low face validity. Skills: o Work samples are basically small simula6ons about a job, for example a poten6al lecture teacher a training mini lecture, they highly related to the job and predict future performance, goof face validity, they give a good preview of the job. o Assessment centers for example exercises, they help leader led group discussions, case analysis and business games, in-basket technique, simula6ons including situa6onal exercises, work samples and role plays. This is a great realiability test and consistent, validity is great too and have good face validity. However, they are very 6me consuming, very expensive, can gave low- inter-rater agreement and safety you have to take to account. Overall they are used to, promo6on selec6on, speciﬁcally the candidates that already have some work experience. o References. Experience - ask ques6ons in the interview about the past about a situa6on, tasks and results od their ac6ons. Past behaviour predict future behaviour, the types of experience as Work or Life and take some considera6ons, such as How much experience, how do the past experiences related to the job? Some concerns, the fear of repi6ng the same behaviour before, but that does not deﬁne the future performance, experience does not guarantee success, experience is actually expensive. How much experience is s6ll reasonable? Does that few year add much value? Risk to hire someone even if they do not have experience, give them a chance. Personality, Interest and Character - this is about high performing individuals and evaluate their personality traits, “func6onal personality trait” combining the Big 5. How does this aﬀect? This personality tests are rela6vely cheap, easy to administer, liGle adverse impact and predicts best when base on job analysis. However, the scale development can´t be right, low validity and some people are likely to fake their results Validity, Reliability and u6lity – tools for your selec6on processes and diﬀerences. Validity – the degree to which inferences from scores are jus6ﬁed by the evidence, does the instrument that we choose great to measure? o Construct Validity it is really about acessing the instrument you really want, for example when someone is reading the oroscope people really feel iden6fy (Barnun Eﬀect); o Content Validity, eg if you want to evaluate intelligence you need to select the right ways; o Criterion Validity (predicts outcomes) rela6onship with Concurrent (You have a measure that correlate with Exis6ng related measure with the same 6me point) and Predic6ve (your measure correla6ng with future outcome and they have diﬀerent 6me points); o Face Validity (apears what is supposed to) you want them to feel comfortable and that their skills are suitable to the job, feeling of measuring what you want to measure. Reliability – consistency, the extend to which a score from a test or from an evalua6on is consistent and free from error. Does the instrument measure performing well? Example, if a termomether is broken you can measure your temperature several 6mes and the result is always wrong. o Test-Restest (consistency over6me) and liability; o Alternate Forms (form stability) you take two IQ tests and you have really diﬀerent scores, one is nos realiable. o And we also have internal realiability (item stability) you can have items that do not relate with some internal factores and they do not give reliability. o Scorer reliability (inter-rater reliability). o Overall, the higher the reliability higher the test results. U6lity – it is about what you should consider some accessment tool if you are already acessing other things, considering other sslec6ons methods, does that improve? We also have Diﬀerent ways od determina6ng u6lity for example taylor Russell, Lawshe tables, propor6on of correct decisions and u6liy formulas. Fairness and Decision Making Fairness in selec6on assessments: o Measurement bias technical aspects, in tests there are group diﬀerences in the scores race gender that are unrelated to the construct being measured eg integrity; o Predic6ve Bias, in a situa6on in which the predicted level of job success falsely favors one group over another. Eg. Some gaps in women resume are about pregnancy if you do not take that as account, you are discrimina6ng them. More eg. Are nursing are sterio6ped as women, if you chose a man in a chief posi6on in that case you are not unfair, across genders. Decision Making – Linear approach: o Unadjusted top-down selec6on: the performance ﬁrst hiring formula; o Passing scores this is a point in a distribu6on of scores; o Banding is a compromise between the top-down and passing scores approach, it takes into account that tests are not perfectly reliable (error) SEM Banding – This method is based on the concept of the standard erros of measurement to compute you need the SD and reliability of the test, Band is established by multuplying per 1.96 6mes the SE in order to obtain 95% of level of conﬁdence. We can divide this em 2 parts: The Non slidind band and Sliding Band - Non sliding banding you hire anyone whose scores fall between the top score and the band score; - Sliding Band starts with the highest score and subtract from it the band with, if no minority individual falls in this interval, go to the second hightest score and subtract band width and so on. Lecture 4 Employee Evalua6on and Training Evalua6ng Employee Performance – Eﬀec6ve Performance appraisal systems and Steps of developing the system. The eﬀec6ve performance appraisal system: With job-related and based on a job analysis. o First, it is properly administered being formal and documented, standardized, not too complicated and fair. o Second, It provides speciﬁc feedback behaviour focused on behaviours rather than traits and ra6ngs are documentes. o Last, it uses appropriate raters, so raters are trained, all relavant rater are used and rater used must be relevant and qualiﬁed. Steps in developing the system: o Are iniciated by crea6ng a task-force that includes all levels in the organiza6on; o Then Determinate why are evalua6ng performance (your goal) and iden6fying environmental and cultural variables that could aﬀect the system. o Furthermore, determina6ng the sources to be used in appraising performance such as assup6ons (supervisors and raters are fair, objec6ve and unbiased, supervisors and employees willl not try to manipulate performance ra6ngs to get desired outcomes and rater can adequately dis6nguish and individual’s performance from the situa6onal constraits) o Finally determina6ng the best method to accomplish your goal Performance appraisal process: 1. Determinate the Purpose- feedback and training (65%), personnel decisions (raises 86%, promo6ons 45%, termina6on decisions 30%), research and legal or cer6ﬁca6on reasons) 2. Iden6ﬁy limita6ons 3. Determinate who will do the appraisal – upper management direct supervisore, peers, subordinates, customer, the public and self. 4. Select Method with the following ques6ons: What will be the focus? Weighted dimensions? How to rate performance? How to appraise performance? 4.1. Trait focus, task focus, competency focus, goal focus, contextual focus and “good soldier” 4.2. Weighted dimensions – which aspects are more important, unequal weighted dimensions and preferences, equal weigjted dimensions and prac6ce in most organiza6ons. 4.3. Use of employee comparision (rank order à paired comparison à forced distribu6on method, Bates 2003); Objec6ve measures (qua6ty, quality, aGendance and safety); supervisor ra6ngs (graphic ra6ng behaviroul, checklist, comparison employees, frquency desired behaviours, mee6ng organiza6onal expecta6ons). 5. Train Raters 6. Observe an document performance- we tend to remember ﬁrst impressions, recent behaviour, unusual behaviours, extreme behaviours, behaviour consistent with opinion. We tend to forget details, the source of the informa6on. 7. Evaluate Performance with Common ra6ng error such as Range Restric6on (stricness central tedency) or loca6on errors (proximity and contrast), Some6me raters don’t agree because of common ra6ng errors, diﬀerent standards and comparisons, observa6on of diﬀerent behaviours. 8. Communicate appraisal results: Employee input prior to the mee6ng, high level of employee par6cipa6on, helpful supervisor aBtude, focus on behaviours rather than traits, iden6ﬁca6on of solu6ons to problemas, mutual seBng of speciﬁc goals, consistent applica6on of standards and rater is familiar with the employee’s work. 9. Make decisions 10. Monitor Legality and fairness: Has the organiza6ons provided training? Or gender, race, ethnicity, disability or age diﬀerences in ra6ngs? Similar ra6ngs receing similar rewards? What is the historic behind? Algorithmic Evalu6on – Using AI to monitor eg. Machine learning, algorithmic recordging Algorithmic management is a ar6ﬁcial intelligence systems are increasingly take over decisions, previsously made by humans, related to people and management. Algorithmic issues – feeling of constant surveillance, employees policing each-other, loss privacy, accuracy concerns, lack of transparency. Training – a planned eﬀort by the organiza6on to facilitate the learning of job related behaviour on the part of it’s employees. Eg. Coaching, teaching, knowledge, development, learn, experience and skills. Training steps: 1. Determinante training needs 2. Develop training program: establishing goals and objec6ve, choose best training methods, prepare the training, mo6vate employees, conduct training 3. Evaluate training success Types of needs analysis: - Organiza6on analysis: “What organiza6onal goals do you want to achieve with the training” Goals and objec6ves, economic analysis, organiza6onal climate, employee readiness such as aBtudes, 6me and commitment, and management support. - Task analysis: “What must the trainee learn in orde to perform the job aﬀec6vely” First, Job analysis iden6ﬁes tasks, condi6ons under which tasks are performed, KSAOSs needed to perfom tasks. Second, Task analysis iden6ﬁes how tasks are learned, expected at 6me-of-hire, easily taught on-the-job, current training program and no training. - Person analysis: “Which individuals need training and for what” Performance appraisal scores, surveys, interviews, skill and knowledge tests and cri6cal incidents Develop a training program Training methods – Classroom Training, Distance learning and on-the-job training - Classroom teaching: lecture to acquire knowledge, case studies to apply knowledge, simuala6on exercises and role play and bahavioral modeling. - Distance learning: books, videos, interac6ve video, programmed instruc6on - On-the-job training: modeling, job rota6on, appren6ce training, coaching, mentoring, perfomance appraisal Feedback: - Speciﬁc and learning - Nega6ve feedback Eg. Sandwich feedback with posi6ve and construc6ve cri6cism, and in other hanf percep6os vs. performance, diluted cri6que and auteh6city cocerns. Ensuring traininf transfer Use realis6c training programs, have oprotuni6tes to prac6ce work-related behaviour during the training , provide employees with the opportunity to apply their training , ensure management is suppor6ve of the hiring, have employees set goals. Meta analysis evidence: Evaluate the Training program- Training evalu6on, Solomon four-group design, evalua6on of training criteria and why? - Training Evalu6on - Solomo four-group design - Evalu6on of training criteria: Content validity, employee reac6on, employee learning, applica6on of training, business impact, return on investment. WHY? Training and development (T&D) can lead to more posi6ve employee aBtudes such as higher sa6sfac6on, involvement and commitment, lower incidence of grienvances and absenteeism, higher employee reten6on and lower turnover, hogher levels of overall human capital or employee skill levels. Eg. In hospitals, pa6ent mortality improved by eﬀec6ve training and development. Training examples in prac6ce – leadership trainings, diversity trainings, sexual harassment trainings. They deliver and are woth the investment. Lecture 5- Guest lecture Learning and Development in the Workplace- Building skills to success What it learning and development (L&D)? Focuses on enhacing employee skills, knowledge and performance. Why does ir maGer? Employee growth ( helps individuals build exper6se and conﬁdence), company success (drives produc6vity, innova6on and adaptability) and job sa6sfac6on (increases engagement and rete6on by inves6ng in employees growth” The strategic importance of L&D: - AGracts and retains talent – 65% evaluate jobs based on upskilling opportuni6es - Boost employee experience – increases conﬁdence, ini6a6ve and career aspira6ons - Promote DEIB – foster inclusive growth opportuni6es for all backgrounds - Bridges skills gaps – euips workfores to adapt to tec advances - Enhaces engagement – employees are 76% more likely to stay with companies oﬀering L&D - Foster innova6ons – prepares employees to meet future organiza6onal needs ADDIE MODEL of Instruc6onal Design A – Analysis - analise your situa6on to understand the gaps you need to ﬁll D – Design – based on your analysis make informed decisions to design the best possible learning experiene D – Development – Bring your learning experience to life by building your end-product I – Implementa6on – distribute your learning end-product to your audience E – Evalua6on – evaluate if your learning end-product if eﬀec6ve, make any necessary updates and cycle back to the analysis phase. Example – Sales training program 1. Analysis – Iden6fy sales team skill gaps 2. Design – Create interac6ve role-play scenarios 3. Development – Produce training role-play scenarios 4. Implementa6on – Conduct workshops and online modules 5. Evalua6on – Measures sales performance improvements New manager training - Analyse the skills gaps – Project management - Design – what is the best learning experience, you don’t create you think what you want to do – Planning, it is the outline, what kind of the outlining - Development – you create you produce, you say what you want to do you present the material - Implementa6on and evalua6on… The Kirkpatrick Model 4- Results – Did the training inﬂuence performance? Most expensive and more important one, because spends lots of 6me. We measure results of the costumers sa6sfac6on, do the costumer rate use with 5star? Takes 6me and 6me is money, we need to 6me to see it. Primary metric, Obje6ve and Evalua6on (compare between results) and Conclusion. 3 – Impact – Did the training change behaviour? Or behavior, with system integra6on and post-training behavior with observa6on, see how they are going, are they doing correct or not? Superviror Review and behavior change metric, IF we have a low percentage we need to do a new one to improve – it is expensive, that’s here where the evalua6on stops… and Success Indicator: training sucess 2- Learning- Did the learning transfer occur? Role play prac6ce with groups in breakout rooms with facilitor observing or Formal level 2 evalua6on and Knowledge assessment (quizz eg. 10 ques6ons, with cer6ﬁca6ons) – a bit more expensive compared to 1. 1- Reac6on – Did the learners enjoy the training? Eg. a webinar content (goal: screen sharing training and Topics: when, how and legal); Prac6ce with Breakout sessions and Survey Feedback and extra. Now, how do we actually implement it? We need to reverse the model, we need to start with level 4. What kind of result you want in this company? And why? First result-oriented, what result you want in a company. Then, what do you want? What behavior change do you want? You want to close deals in 3 days? Then, did they learn? And Last, did the learners enjoy it? NOW, the most popular model… The 70-20-10 Model 70% On the job learning - Real life challenges and in-the-job experiences - Key components – job related challenges, problem solving and learning trought mistakes. Diret applica6ons develop technical (hard like performance, excel, python) and sov skills (good comunica6on, dependig on the job). 20% Learning through others - Social learning- someone is beGer at 6me managing, other at the presenta6on, learning that comes from interac6on with others such as colleagues, mentors, managers and peers. - Focuses at social learning, learning through feedback and collabora6on - Key components – mentorship and coaching, peer-to-peer learning with collabora6ng with teammates or colleagues for shared knowledge, Feedback. 10% Formal learning - Formal educa6onal experiences such as training programs, workshops and courses - Key components – courses and workshops, cer6ﬁca6ons, self-paced learning - Why? Provides theore6cal knowledge and structures learning environemnt, specialized skills. Lecture 6 Biases in Recruitment 1. Recruitment Biases Unconscious or implicit biases is the term for the mental processes that cause a person to act in ways that reinforce sterotypes even when in our conscious mind we would deem that behavior counter to our value system. Most commonly to our value system. Cultural ﬁr, similar educa6on or study associa6ons, na6onality and age. - Conﬁrma6on Biases – the tendency to gather evidence that conﬁrms preexis6ng expecta6ons typically by emphazing or pursuing suppor6ng evidence while dismissing or failing to seek contraditory evidence. It is really seeing the resume and poi6ng some points, and then in the interview you speciﬁcally look at that point to conﬁrm. Related to hard skills to conﬁrm them - Aﬀet Heuris6cs: when emo6ons and mood heavily inﬂuencce mental shortcuts - Expecta6on Achor Biases - something we directly compare each candidate, you always compare to that one person who is really good. Comparing fast and slow paced companies. - Aﬃnity Biases – cultural ﬁt, like being the same na6onality, having the same degree, or same school, know the same people. - Stereotype Biases – is an over-generalised belief about par6cular group of people, an interviewer may assume that a candidate who is shy or introvert may not be a good ﬁt for par6cular role, even though these traits may not be true. 2. Hiring Challenges - Resume: you screen the resume and you analyse the person, use intui6on to help alleviate workload and look for shortclues to make an informed hopefully guess, you need a strong CV, with Key words, check personal informa6on, companies they worked for or job hopping (normally is bad, because you are always changing), how easily they can work, are they near the loca6on? Short and simples, max 30seg to read. - Interviews: Where most biases come in – in interviews will uncosciously create percep6ons of candidates based on : cultural and team ﬁt, you see yourself working with that person, or you no6ce they worked a lot! Many interviews anre now virtual like loca6on, distrac6on can inﬂuence candidate percep6on. BE aware for the ques6ons and being prepeared to avoid the biases, it is these biases that lead to low quality and slow hiring. Example: hiring from speciﬁc univerisi6es and regions. - Cultural Fit – how well does the candidatee ﬁt the culture od the team and comapnay, do they align with the values and social style. Mainly based on intui6on and bias, can ues personality tests but as an assising tool, interviews only measure 2 things: knowledge or experience + cultural ﬁt. Biases and their inﬂuence on Recruitment - Slow Hiring – taking too long to ﬁnd the right talent or hiring the wrong talent leading to the need to re-hire - Failing good candidates – rejec6ng knowledge candidates due to non-work reason - Low mo6va6on – Slow hiring will lead to less mo6va6on in the team - Lower quality candidates – passing through unqualiﬁed candidates + unstructured hiring. 3. How to avoid Biases – Tackling Bias Tackling Bias – as a recruiter it it your responsibility to guide hiring teams in crea6ng a fair hiring process : Structures interview, interview training, … Structures interview : - Purpose - create a focus point for each interview – each round need to have a focus area, eg. Leadership or poten6al colleague - Ques6ons - Standardize quas6ons per inter interview – create guideline ques6ons that interviewrs can use throughout the interview, this created focus and ensures each candidate answers ques6ons on similar subject areas. - Relevance – avoid stupid ques6ons – ques6on guidelines are important to help interviewers avoid asking ques6ons that may seem to give insight into a candidatem but actually do not. - Feedback – share feedback and decision ASAP – aver interviews, make sure feedback is submiGed as soon as possible. Otherwise, people will tend to forget details focus and concerns. Eg. 24h - Recognize – help interviwers iden6dy bias – It is important to train your hiring team on best prac6ces. This means preppring them on how to behave during interviews but what biases to be aware of, Ques6oning techiniques - Approach – interviwers inﬂuence interviewees – train your interviewers on how to behave during an interview. Their behavior can inﬂuence interviewee behaviour. - Variety – include diﬀerent assessments – make sure to include a variety of interviews, conversa6onal interviewers, assignments, shadow sessions. Individual vs. panel interviewers. - Hard Skills – always assess hard skills – always include a form of assessment to test hard skills needed for the job. I have had a mul6ple candidates excel in behaviroural interviewers only to fail the assignment. Cogni6ve and Personality Tests- Cogni6ve tests can be important for certain technical roles and Personality can give us a valuable insisght but are not always accurate and can be manipulated. This tools should ideally only be used as assis6ng informa6on and not key decision factors. AI in recruitment – many AI tools and sovware popping that claim to help with recru6ment. We need to remain cau6os about their reliability. Importance of recruitment - Importance – recruitment is important – oven 6mes recruitment is a secondary responsibility for hiring teams. Therefore, It does not always get the best reputa6on and people get lazy about it. - Prepara6on – no prepara6on = improvise – when the importance of this is not understood, enough 6me… Lecture 7 Compe6ng commitments in workplace What is it? Who wants change? New year resolu6on? Why do we have them? “Compe6ng commitments” by Robert Kegan and Lisa Laskow Lahey they wrote “the Real Reasosn why people won’t change” refers to subconcious goal, either individual or collec6ve, that contradicts a desired change. It presents a process and roadmap for understanding and diagnosing the reasons why individuals struggle with clange, individually, as a team or in the organiza6on. It related to mo6va6on, aBtudes, sa6sfac6on, well-being and stress in the workplace. The real reaso why people, teams and organiza6ons don’t change is compe6ng commitments make people personally immune to change, it is not thar people do not want to s6ck to what they are commiGed to. But there are other things that wigh just as heavily and that stand in the way of the desired change or beehavior. Oven, there is a hidden goal that conﬂicts with your stated goals, and there are unconsciously certain big assump6ons underneath such as… How does it work? – steps to make the dynamics of comep6ng commitments visible 1. What would you like to see changed at work, so that you could be more eﬀec6ve or so that work would be more sa6sfying? 2. What is my commitment? 3. What are you doing, or nor doing, that is keeping your stated commitment from being fully realized? 4. What are your compe6ng commitments? 5. What is you were to exhibit opposito behaviour? What outcomes of that behaviour are you trying to prevent? What is your big assump6on about that? When work with it in organiza6ons? - When people show resistance to a change in the organiza6ons - When people work togheter in teams – collec6ve compe6ng commitments - When people work in a temporary project team on top of their own job - When in coaching someone indicates that he or she really wants to change something, but something else is holding him or her back Lecture 8 Employee A6Gudes and Mo6va6on Deﬁning Mo6va6on Mo6va6on – “ The study of work mo6va6on is concerned with why people ini6ate behavior and eﬀort at work, and the processes that determinate its intensity, direc6on towards goals, and maintenance over 6me. “ Wood and West, 2014 Inidividual Diﬀerences People diﬀer in their predisposi6on to be mo6vated. - Self-esteem: Chronic, Situa6onal, Socially Inﬂuenced - Need for achievement - Intrinsic Mo6va6on: A person’s internal desire to do something. Eg. Interest, challenge and personal sa6sfac6on. - Extrinsic Mo6va6on: Mo6va6on that comes from outside the person. Eg. Pay, bonuses and other tangible rewards, status, social recogni6on and pres6ge. Needs and Mo6va6on Value and Expecta6ons – Have the employee’s needs, values and wants been met? Need Theories (Main Idea) = People have needs, People are mo6vated to fulﬁll those needs, Id the reward you receive for high performance sa6sfy your needs , yout mo6va6on to perform will be high. - Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy - ERG Theory (17.1) - Two-Factor Theory - Job Characteris6cs Theory: Jobs are mo6va6n when they: Þ Have task variety and signiﬁcance Þ Allow task iden6ﬁca6on and autonomy Þ Provide employees with feedback Þ (Meaningfulness, responsibility, and knowledge of results – which inﬂuence mo6va6on, performane and sa6sfca6on) Goal SeBng Theory o Speﬁcic anf challenging but aGainable goal lead to higher performance o Goals should be set together the employee o Feedback facili6es higher performance o Ficus be on rewards not on punishment Rewards and Mo6va6on o Rewarding excellent performance – Timing, Con6gency and Type of the reward The premack principle – diﬀerent things reinforce diﬀerent people - we can get people to engage in behavior they don’t like by reinforcing them with the opportunity to engage behavior they like beGer. Financial Incen6ve Plans: o Individual incen6ve plans : Pay for performance, Merit pay o Organiza6onal incen6ve plans: proﬁt sharing, gainsharing, stock op6ons Pay for Performance – Evidence Based Management o A compe66ve basis package of extrinsic rewards o Tedious, repe66ve, less enjoyable tasks, and focus one extrinsic rewards o Complex, crea6ve, absorbing tasks, and focusing on intrinsic rewards Expectancy Theory Equity Theory Main Idea: Your inputs, such as skills, abili6es, educa6ons and experience, should explain diﬀerences in performance and pay other rewards. - Individuals are concerned not only with the absolute amount of rewards for eﬀorts, but also with the rela6on ship of this amount to what other receive. - Individuals compare their jobs inputs and outcomes with those of others and then respond so as to eliminate any inequi6es - Underpayment: work less hard, become more selﬁsh, lower job sa6sfac6on - Overpayment: no guilt feeling, some6mes work harder, become more team oriented ABtudes at Work What is an ABtude? The ABC model of aBtudes componets are Aﬀec6ve, Behavioral and Cogni6ve. Work-Related aBtudes: (Job) Sa6sfac6on, Commitment, Engagement, Job involvement, Jus6ce and Fairness. Organiza6onal Commitment - Aﬀec6ve Commitment – “I would be very happy to spend the rest of my career with this org.” - Con6nuance commitment - “ I have invested tooo much 6me into this job to leave now.” - Norma6ve commitment – “I think that people these days move from company to company too oven” Job Engagement The extent to which employees are involved with, commiGed to, enthusias6c and passionate about their work. Diﬀerent Components: - Dedica6on – Loving your work - Absorp6on - AGen6on to work and ﬂow - Vigor – PuBng a lot of eﬀort Job Involvement The degree to which an employee iden6ﬁes with a job, ac6vely par6cipated in it and considers performance important to self-worth. - Employee engagement – Involvement + commitment, enthusiasm and passion How do aBtudes inﬂuence behavior? Theory of planned behavior How do we change aBtudes? ABtude change – Persuasion and inﬂuence à ABtude strenght an important factor in change - Elabora6on likelihood Model – ELM - Heuris6c or Systema6c Model - HSM Cogni6ons AGribu6ons Theory - when individals observe behavior, they aGempt to determinate whether the cause is Internal (individual is responsible) and External (Situa6on or outside causes). We oven disort aGribu6ons when looking at ourselves vs. others – more posi6ve aGrbu6ons and hence aBtudes towards self. In other, we tend to underes6mate external factors and overes6mate internal factors. Especially, when other are more unfamiliar and behavior is nega6ve. Eg. A student submits an incomplete assignment and assumed as a low eﬀort. Aﬀect Aﬀect inﬂuences on behavior – examples: - Posi6ve emo6ons make people see things though pink glasses and therefore, happy people are more wiling to invest in other and oﬀer helps. They can make people more crea6ve and open- minded. - Negav6ve emo6ons make people become more ciri6cal of other and therefore they may be less willing to help them. They can also make people become more aGen6ve and focused and drive them to analyze a situatuon more carefully. Social Inﬂuences on Behavior Social facilita6on is an evalu6on apprehension (CoGrell, 1972) – performance is altered because people are apprehensive about how they will be evaluated. - Conformity, Social Loaﬁng, Social Iden6ty and Work Group diversity Lecture 10 Employee Sa6sfac6on and commitment & Stress and Well-Being Sa6sfac6on and Commitment Individual diﬀerences in job sa6sfac6on Why? Gene6c predisposi6ons Important ﬁndings: Core self-evalua6ons: Self-esteem, self- - Consistency across jobs eﬃcacy, internal focus of control and - Cosistency across 6me op6mism/posi6ve aﬀec6vity - Rela6onship job sa6sfac6on and life sa6sfac6on Absenteeism and Turnover Why are People Absent? Work stressors, no consequences for aGending or missing work, illness and personal problems, individual diﬀerences and unique events. Increasing AGendance: The cost of absenteeism - Reducing stress – overload, conﬂict peer - Lost produc6vity of absent employee and supervisors, boredom, safety issues - Over6me for other employees - Crea6ng incen6ves – ﬁnancial incen6ves, - Decreased produc6vity of the other paid-6me programs, recogni6on employees programs, discipline for not aGending, - Temporary help cost clear policy and record keeping - Client sa6sfac6on reduc6on - Employee morale Turnover – Unavoidable reasons, escape from, advancement and unmet needs Unavoidable reasons Escape form Advancement - School ends - People - More responsibility - Job transfer - Working condi6ons - BeGer pay - Illness and Family issues - Unmet expecta6ons Reducing turnover Compensa6on issues Selec6on issues Organiza6on issues - Match the market - Conducted realis6c job - Provide training - Use job evaluta6on to previews - Show apprecia6on ensure internal equity - Look for person- - Mediate conﬂicts - Oﬀer reten6on or tenure organiza6on ﬁt - Meet employee needs: bonuses (stay for pay) - Study predictors of safety, social and people who leave growth Meta-Analy6cal Evidence The Cost of Turnover Counterproduc6ve WorkPlace Behavior Why do employees engage in CWB? Psychological Contract A set of implicit or explicit agreements between two par6es, based on prior experience, expecta6ons and promises. Psychological contract breach Unmet promises can lead to empoyee dissas6sfac6on and CWB Work Stress Stress = Job stress can be deﬁned as harmful physical and emo6onal responses that occur when the requirements of the job do not match the capabili6es, resources, or needs of the workers. - Stressors: eg. Work pressure, conﬂicts, abusive supervision - Strain: eg. Anxiety, sleep depriva6on, burnout, cardiovascular diseases Diﬀerent types of stress Eustress Distress - Stress converted to posi6ve energy - Nega6ve outcome - Desirable outcome of stress - Results in emo6onal and - Mo6va6onal results physical illness - Op6mal level of excitement (Arousal) Predisposi6on to Stress - Stress personali6es: Type A (resilient and hard-working) vs. Type B (Lazy); Pessimist vs. Op6mist, and neuro6cism - Stress Sensi6za6on Sources of Stress o Personal Stressors: Fear of the unknown; Resistance to change; Resentment o Occupa6onal Stressors: Þ Job Characteris6cs: Role of Conﬂict, Ambiguity and Overload Þ Organiza6onal Characteris6cs: Person/Organiza6on Fit, Change, Rela6ons with others, Organiza6onal Poli6cs, Psychological contract breach o Pshysical environment: Temperature, Noise, Safety o Work Schedule Can Technology be a source of stress? YES. Core Symptoms: o Eletronic monitoring, Email overload and telepressure Exhaus6on, Emo6onal and o Automa6c and AI, ICT hassles, Cyberbullying and Cybercrime Cogn6ve Impairment, Mental o Work/life conﬂict distance Consequences of Stress: Secondary Complaints: o Job performance (curvilinear rela6onship), Burnout, Psychosoma6c complaints, absenteeism Psychological distress, Depressive o Turnover, drug and alcohol abuse, Health care costs mood Corporate Responsibility Working condi6ons legisla6ons: Whistleblower procedure legisla6on Employer is required by law to prevent an Organiza6ons with >50 employees are minimize work stress. This falls under the heading required to have a complaint/whistleblower psychosocial workload, which are all factors that procedure in place, which allows employees directly or indirectly cause stress, including to report any type of misbehavior in a harassment, aggression, violence, bullying and conﬁden6al manner workload Reducing Stress Transac6onal theory of stress and coping The level of stress experienced in the form of thoughts, feelings, emo6ons and behaviours, as a result of external stressors, depends on appraisals of the situa6on which involves a judgement about whether internal or external demands exceed resources and ability to cope when demands exceed resources (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Cogni6ve behavioral therapy CBT focuses on challenging and changing unhelpful cogni6ve distor6ons (e.g. thoughts, beliefs, and aBtudes) and behaviors, improving emo6onal regula6on, and the development of personal coping strategies that target solving current problems. Violence and Mistreatment Diﬀerent types: Aggression, Incivility, Ostracism, Harassment, Bullying - Stress is the main predictors of workplace violence and mistreatment, and less powerful, however s6ll relevant, Personality. Bystanders – Violence is not only nega6ve for the vic6ms. Observers of violence oven display similar nega6ve outcomes (anxiety, sleeping problems, withdrawl) and some6mes even take it out on the org. (thev, negligence, drop in performance). - A personal avenue for dealing with interpersonal mistreatment - Diﬀerent types of interven6ons possible Papers Before guest lecture 3 - Paper Kengan & Lahey (2001) Kegan and Lahey's ar6cle explores the concept of “compe6ng commitments,” which are subconscious beliefs or goals that conﬂict with declared commitments to change. This psychological dynamic is iden6ﬁed as the primary reason people resist change, even when they are genuinely commiGed to it on a conscious level. The authors argue that understanding and addressing these hidden commitments is essen6al for leaders and organiza6ons to foster real and las6ng change. 1. Immunity to Change Resistance to change, according to the authors, is not necessarily a conscious opposi6on or an act of laziness. Oven, it reﬂects a form of personal immunity to change, sustained by compe6ng commitments. These commitments act as a self-protec6on mechanism, preven6ng individuals from confron6ng fears or insecuri6es associated with the consequences of change. For example, someone who claims to want beGer communica6on may unconsciously avoid it to protect themselves from cri6cism or vulnerability. 2. Real-Life Examples The authors illustrate this phenomenon with prac6cal cases. One example is “John,” a talented manager who used sarcas6c humor to alienate colleagues, despite wan6ng to improve workplace rela6onships. Through self-reﬂec6on, John realized that his sabotaging behavior was 6ed to an unconscious commitment to protect his racial iden6ty and avoid fully integra6ng into a predominantly white group, which he feared would betray his roots. Another example is “Helen,” who resisted leading a signiﬁcant project out of fear that it would put her on equal foo6ng with her boss. While she wanted success for the project, she feared losing her subordinate posi6on, which provided emo6onal security and avoided greater accountability. 3. Diagnosing Compe6ng Commitments To overcome this immunity to change, the authors propose a three-step process: 1) Iden6fy sabotaging behaviors: Ask individuals what they want to change and what they are consciously or unconsciously doing to prevent it. 2) Explore underlying fears: Assess whether the idea of ac6ng diﬀerently triggers discomfort, fears, or insecuri6es. 3) Reveal hidden commitments: Ask what undesirable outcome the individual is trying to avoid by maintaining their current behavior. These outcomes oven reveal the compe6ng commitment. 4. Big Assump6ons Compe6ng commitments are oven supported by “big assump6ons,” deep-seated beliefs that shape a person’s worldview and are rarely ques6oned. These assump6ons may stem from childhood or past experiences and are oven treated as unques6onable facts. For example, someone might assume that receiving nega6ve feedback conﬁrms their incompetence or that delega6ng tasks leads to poor decisions. 5. The Transforma6on Process Transforma6on begins with awareness. The authors propose a ﬁve-step process: o Observe current behavior: Iden6fy how assump6ons shape ac6ons and reac6ons. o Seek contradictory evidence: Look for situa6ons where the assump6on does not hold true. o Explore the assump6on’s origin: Reﬂect on how and when the assump6on was formed and ques6on its validity in the current context. o Test the assump6on: Conduct small experiments that directly challenge the assump6on, such as delega6ng a task or receiving feedback with an open mind. o Evaluate results: Analyze the experiments to determine whether the assump6on remains valid or if it can be adjusted or replaced. 6. Group and Organiza6onal Cases The authors argue that these principles apply to groups and organiza6ons as well. En6re teams can be aﬀected by shared compe6ng commitments. For instance, a leadership team aiming to expand into new markets might unconsciously fear that the strategy would create silos and undermine internal collabora6on. Iden6fying and challenging these group-level assump6ons helped the team pursue strategic goals without compromising organiza6onal culture. 7. The Role of Managers Managers play a crucial role in this process, both as facilitators and par6cipants. Oven, managers themselves have compe6ng commitments that nega6vely impact their teams. In Helen’s case, her boss, Andrew, also had a hidden commitment: he believed only he could meet high-quality standards, leading him to centralize decision-making and inadvertently undermine his subordinates’ autonomy. Addressing these dynamics helped both individuals progress. 8. Challenges of the Process Despite its eﬀec6veness, the process is delicate and requires 6me and empathy. It oven involves confron6ng beliefs fundamental to a person’s iden6ty, which can generate discomfort or resistance. However, the authors emphasize that moments of introspec6on and vulnerability are cri6cal for meaningful change. 9. Beneﬁts of the Approach By addressing compe6ng commitments and big assump6ons, individuals can beGer align their behaviors with their stated goals. This not only enhances individual performance but also strengthens workplace rela6onships and fosters a culture of learning and growth. 10. Conclusion Kegan and Lahey conclude that fostering genuine change requires going beyond superﬁcial or coercive strategies. The key lies in understanding the complexi6es of human behavior and guiding individuals through a process of internal discovery and transforma6on. This enables them to overcome psychological barriers and unlock their full poten6al, beneﬁ6ng both individuals and organiza6ons. Paper 1 – HighHouse 2008 “Stubborn Reliance on Intuiton and Subjec6vity in Employee Selec6on” Core Focus The ar6cle cri6ques the persistent reliance on intui6on and subjec6ve judgment in employee selec6on processes, highligh6ng: 1. The eﬀec6veness of analy6cal selec6on tools (e.g., structured interviews, tests). 2. The resistance from employers and HR professionals to adopt evidence-based methods. Key Topics and Insights 1) Eﬀec6veness of Analy6cal Decision Aids o Analy6cal tools like paper-and-pencil tests and structured interviews outperform unstructured interviews in predic6ng employee performance. o Despite evidence, employers prefer unstructured interviews, relying on subjec6ve impressions. 2) Implicit Beliefs Inhibi6ng Adop6on o Belief in perfect predic6on: Employers assume it’s possible to achieve ﬂawless predic6ons of job performance. o Belief in intui6on’s superiority: Experience and intui6on are overvalued as predictors of employee success. 3) Challenges in Changing Employer Preferences o HR professionals oven acknowledge test eﬀec6veness but s6ll prefer informal discussions, believing they provide deeper insights. o Intui6ve decisions mask errors, making failures less visible compared to analy6cal approaches, which highlight the limits of predic6on. 4) Myth of Exper6se o Research debunks the idea that intui6ve judgment improves with experience across professions (e.g., clinicians, recruiters). o Structured tools provide higher reliability and reduce personal biases. 5) Unpredictability in Employee Success o A signiﬁcant por6on of job performance variance is unpredictable at the hiring stage. o Overemphasis on ﬁnding perfect predictors undermines acceptance of probabilis6c approaches to hiring. 6) Social and Organiza6onal Resistance o Analy6cal approaches are viewed as impersonal or mechanical, leading to skep6cism. o Popular culture (e.g., books like *Blink* by Malcolm Gladwell) roman6cizes intui6on, reinforcing biases against evidence-based methods. Recommenda6ons o Educate HR professionals and decision-makers on the limits of intui6on. o Use decision aids alongside expert judgment to combine structured insights with nuanced understanding. o BeGer communicate the value of predic6ve tools using relatable comparisons (e.g., highligh6ng gains over unstructured interviews). Conclusion o Highhouse emphasizes the need to confront entrenched beliefs and biases in hiring. The ﬁeld of Industrial and Organiza6onal Psychology must beGer explain uncertainty, error, and the beneﬁts of analy6cal tools to decision-makers. Paper 2 – Kuncel 2013 "Mechanical Versus Clinical Data Combina6on in Selec6on and Admissions Decisions: A Meta- Analysis" Objec6ve The paper compares mechanical (algorithmic) methods and clinical (holis6c, expert-driven) methods of combining data in predic6ng work and academic performance. The study inves6gates which method oﬀers greater predic6ve accuracy in contexts like employee selec6on and academic admissions. Key Findings 1. Mechanical Methods Outperform Clinical Methods o Across mul6ple criteria (job performance, academic GPA, etc.), mechanical methods consistently showed higher predic6ve validity. o For job performance, the predic6ve validity was 0.44 for mechanical methods versus 0.28 for clinical methods. This translates to a 50% improvement in predic6on accuracy with mechanical methods. 2. Human Judgment Limita6ons o Experts, even when knowledgeable, oven weight informa6on inconsistently, leading to reduced predic6ve accuracy. o Mechanical methods are consistent and apply ﬁxed algorithms, reducing errors linked to subjec6ve biases. 3. Lens Model Framework o The study u6lizes the Brunswik Lens Model, which describes how judgments are formed by combining cues (e.g., test scores, interviews). o Mechanical approaches closely adhere to op6mal cue weigh6ng, whereas clinical judgments deviate due to inconsistency and overemphasis on less relevant cues. 4. Prac6cal Implica6ons o Organiza6ons and educa6onal ins6tu6ons relying on clinical methods may experience a signiﬁcant loss in decision-making eﬀec6veness. o Adop6ng mechanical methods can lead to beGer outcomes, even when job demands or student proﬁles are complex. Implica6ons for Prac6ce o Evidence-Based Selec6on: Organiza6ons should priori6ze mechanical over clinical methods for tasks requiring predic6ve decisions. o Training for Experts: Eﬀorts to train experts to reduce bias in cue weigh6ng could par6ally mi6gate the clinical method's limita6ons. o Hybrid Approaches: Combining mechanical precision with expert judgment might capture the strengths of both approaches. Paper 3 – Sacket 2022 "Revisi6ng Meta-Analy6c Es6mates of Validity in Personnel Selec6on: Addressing Systema6c Overcorrec6on for Restric6on of Range" Objec6ve The paper cri6ques and revises prior meta-analy6c methods used to es6mate the validity of personnel selec6on procedures, focusing on overcorrec6on for range restric6on (varia6ons in applicant pool versus selected employees). The goal is to reﬁne these validity es6mates to avoid inﬂated results and provide accurate predic6ons of job performance. Key Findings 1. Systema6c Overcorrec6on Iden6ﬁed: o Many meta-analyses overcorrect for range restric6on, leading to inﬂated validity es6mates for selec6on predictors like cogni6ve ability tests and interviews. o Overcorrec6on occurs when the same correc6on factor is applied indiscriminately to studies with diﬀerent methodologies (e.g., applicant-based predic6ve versus incumbent-based concurrent studies). 2. Dis6nc6on Between Predic6ve and Concurrent Designs: o Predic6ve studies (assessing future job performance) oven show direct range restric6on, requiring correc6ons. o Concurrent studies (assessing current employees) typically exhibit minimal range restric6on because the predictor was not used in prior selec6on processes. These studies should not use the same correc6on factor. 3. Revised Validity Es6mates: o Adjustments reduce previous validity es6mates by **0.10–0.20 points**. Despite this, selec6on procedures remain useful but less predic6ve than previously believed. o Structured interviews emerged as one of the most valid predictors aver revisions. 4. Tradeoﬀs with Diversity: o The paper pairs validity es6mates with mean Black-White subgroup diﬀerences for each predictor, highligh6ng the tradeoﬀs between maximizing validity and minimizing adverse impact. Methodological Issues Addressed 1. Ar6fact Distribu6ons: o Common methods for construc6ng ar6fact distribu6ons for range restric6on were cri6qued for their unrealis6c assump6ons and broad applica6on. 2. Decision Tree for Correc6ons: o The authors propose a decision tree to determine when and how to apply correc6ons for range restric6on appropriately, focusing on conserva6ve es6mates rather than risking inﬂated validity values. 3. Meta-Analy6c Revisions: o New es6mates of opera6onal validity incorporate updated correc6on techniques or, in some cases, no correc6on at all, depending on the evidence available. Prac6cal Implica6ons o Reevalua6on of Selec6on Tools: Employers should consider the revised validity es6mates when designing selec6on systems, especially in diverse workplace contexts. o Emphasis on Evidence-Based Prac6ces: The ﬁndings call for rigorous methodological scru6ny in future meta-analyses to avoid overes6ma6ons. o Balancing Validity and Fairness: Insights into subgroup diﬀerences reinforce the importance of aligning selec6on procedures with organiza6onal diversity goals. Summarized Book Chapters 1. Overview of Industrial/Organiza6onal Psychology Deﬁni6on and Scope: I/O Psychology applies psychological principles to the workplace, focusing on enhancing employee performance and well-being. Two main areas: o Industrial Psychology: Focuses on job analysis, selec6on, training, and performance evalua6on. o Organiza6onal Psychology: Addresses mo6va6on, job sa6sfac6on, leadership, and workplace culture. History and Evolu6on: o Originated in the early 20th century, with contribu6ons from pioneers like Walter Dill ScoG and Hugo Münsterberg. o Signiﬁcant milestones include the development of the Army Alpha and Beta tests during WWI and the Hawthorne studies in the 1930s. Research and Ethics: o Emphasis on scien6ﬁc methods and ethical considera6ons in workplace interven6ons. o Use of advanced sta6s6cal techniques (e.g., meta-analysis, structural equa6on modeling) to validate ﬁndings. 2. Core Topics in I/O Psychology Job Analysis and Employee Selec6on: o Methods for iden6fying job requirements and assessing candidate suitability through structured interviews, psychometric tests, and references. Performance Management: o Techniques for evalua6ng and enhancing employee performance using tools like behaviorally anchored ra6ng scales (BARS). Training and Development: o Strategies for iden6fying training needs, delivering eﬀec6ve programs, and ensuring skill transfer to the workplace. Mo6va6on and Sa6sfac6on: o Explora6on of intrinsic/extrinsic mo6va6on, goal-seBng theory, and job enrichment. o Assessment of employee sa6sfac6on using standardized surveys and addressing factors inﬂuencing commitment. Leadership and Team Dynamics: o Study of leadership styles (e.g., transforma6onal vs. transac6onal) and their impact on team performance and conﬂict resolu6on. 3. Modern Trends and Applica6ons Technological Advances: o Use of online tools for recruitment, training, and performance evalua6ons. o Integra6on of virtual communica6on and e-learning in organiza6onal prac6ces. Diversity and Globaliza6on: o Focus on managing a mul6cultural workforce and adap6ng to global economic changes. Stress and Well-being: o Addressing workplace stress through ergonomic interven6ons and ﬂexible work arrangements. Legal and Ethical Challenges: o Naviga6ng employment laws, such as an6-discrimina6on and privacy policies, to ensure fair prac6ces.

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