Filipino Personality and Social Work PDF

FILIPINO PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL WORK Habib D. Pagilogon COURSE DESCRIPTION This course provides the students with a fundamental understanding of the Filipino culture, personality, and value as they affect and shape Filipino personality. The course will cover several common tr...

FILIPINO PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL WORK Habib D. Pagilogon COURSE DESCRIPTION This course provides the students with a fundamental understanding of the Filipino culture, personality, and value as they affect and shape Filipino personality. The course will cover several common traits or repeatedly attributed to Filipinos, some of which would center on the theme’s social relationship, goals values and reciprocity. A discussion of relevance of Western methods and other issues related to an indigenous Philippine psychology with emphasis on Social Work and the Filipino Personality. COURSE OUTCOMES Upon completion of the course, the BS Social Work students are expected to: Explain the different Filipino and Western personality theories used in Social Work practice. Apply the different Filipino and Western personality theories in understanding the Social Work clienteles. Apply various Filipino and Western personality theories in formulating case assessment. HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT This area focuses on the knowledge about the individual as a bio-psycho-social being, the interaction between him/her and the physical, social, cultural, political, and economic forces in the environment which affect or influence behavior.  HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT Students are expected to: Analyze individual, group family, community and organization behavior in the context of Philippine cultures. Apply theories of human behavior in understanding/assessing individuals, families, groups, communities and organizations. Analyze patterns of family dynamics and processes, and how they affect family members. Explain local, national, regional and global realities and their impact on the functioning, relations and welfare of individuals, families, groups and communities. Explain the forms, mechanisms and consequences of oppression and discrimination based on class, gender, race, ethnicity and identity. Analyze how gender informs identity, social processes and relations. Apply understanding of social processes and social structures in working with collectivities of people.  Multidimensional Approach Based on the belief that human behavior is dynamic Developed through internal & external forces Influenced by the interaction of person, environment, & time A person is shaped by an ever changing environment & the environment is shaped by the person Both are shaped by “time”  Multidimensional Approach Three dimensions include: The person - biological, psychological, social, & spiritual The environment - family, neighborhood, community, social structure, clan, “tribe” Time - constants, trends, cycles, shifts, time orientation, pace of time, life events  Multidimensional Approach What does “time” include? 1. Constants - Changes that move in only one direction, such as age. 2. Trends - Changes that move in a general direction, but are not constant, such as an increase in the number of women involved in peace-building 3. Cycles - Changes that are repetitive, such as the school semester cycle or the crop harvest cycle 4. Shifts - Changes that are sudden, such as those caused by death, illness, trauma, natural disaster, & war 5. Time orientation - The way we think about time, such as “past, present, future.” This especially depends on our culture. JOHN LOCKE (1632-1704) Epistemology – branch of philosophy concerned with what knowledge is, how we acquire it, and whether it has secure foundations. Argued that knowledge is demonstrably acquired only through sensory experience, but that our sensory experience is not infallible. The mind is a tabula rasa (a blank slate) that we fill with ‘ideas’ as we experience the world through the five senses. CHARLES DARWIN (1809-1882) Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution had three main components: that variation occurred randomly among members of a species; that an individual’s traits could be inherited by its progeny; and that the struggle for existence would allow only those with favorable traits to survive. CHILD DEVELOPMENT  Child Development Growth – the increase in size of the body – in height, weight and other measurable areas. Development – is the gaining of skills in all aspects of the child's life.  Child Development Four areas of development: Physical development: this refers to the body increasing in skill and performance and includes: gross motor development (using large muscles), for example legs and fine motor development (precise use of muscles), for example hands and fingers. Social and emotional development: this is the development of a child's identity and self-image, the development of relationships and feelings about him or herself and learning the skills to live in society with other people. Intellectual development: this is learning the skills of understanding, memory and concentration. Communication and speech development: this is learning to communicate with friends, family and all others.  Child Development Three principles of development 1. Development starts from the head and works down the body. 2. All development happens in the same order, but can occur at different rates. 3. All areas of development are linked together.  Child Development Factors that affect growth and development: Finances – amount of money available for food, education, holidays Cultural background – expectations of different groups Social classes – impact of long term poverty, attitudes to educational development Family background – different expectations for development, love and support Environment – housing, pollution Health status – long term illness, acute illness, e.g. meningitis Genetics – effect of inheritance, e.g. height, skills Gender – different rates of growth for girls and boys FAMILIES GROUPS SOCIAL FUNCTIONING COMMUNITIES/OR Societal Forces GANIZATIONS Social functioning Wernes Boehm (1958) – Social work seeks to enhance the social functioning of individuals, singularly and in groups, by activities focused upon their social relationships which constitute interaction between the individuals and their environments. William Schwartz (1961) – the general assignment for the social work profession is to mediate the process through which the individual and society reach out to each other through a mutual need for self-fulfillment. Social functioning William Gordon (1969) – person-in-his-life situation complex. Harriet Bartlett (1970) – social functioning is the relation between the coping activity of people and the demand from the environment. Louise C. Johnson (1989) – social workers become involved when individuals are having difficulty in relationship with other people; in growing so as to maximize their potential; and in meeting the demands of the environment. Social functioning Defines an individual’s interactions with their environment and the ability to fulfill their role within such environments as work, social activities, and relationships with partners and family. Social well-being, especially with regard to the ability of an individual to meet the role expectations associated with particular status or role (Longres; [Sheafor, Horejsi, and Horejsi, 1997]). Client’s ability to accomplish the activities necessary for daily living… and to fulfill major social roles as required by a particular subculture or community (Karls and Wandrei). Horejsi (1976)’s Social Functioning Factors: Motivation, Capacity, Opportunity, Service, and Problem. Types: Effective, At-Risk, and Difficult.  SOCIAL SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT SITUATION  is network of  is an impinging overlapping social segment of the systems and social social environment. situations, including ecological systems, cultures and institutions.  Causes of dysfunctioning: personal, situational, or both A social situation is considered dysfunctional “when it is structurally and culturally inadequate or disorganized; is aimless, unfocused, ambiguous, contradictory, threatening or harmful; lacks needed resources and opportunities; presents insurmountable barriers; stimulates unacceptable stress or impulses; generates severe interpersonal role and value conflicts; requires performance, knowledge, and skills that are beyond and individual’s capacity or ability; and does not value identity.” Person-In-Environment (PIE): The Locus of Social Functioning The person is a multi-dimensional entity, a bio-psycho-social- spiritual being who is a product of his/her past experiences, being shaped by present socio-politico-economic realities, and equipped with capacities, potentials and motivations for becoming. S/he responds within the context of his/her environment. Person’s environment/situation is made up of objective (external) and subjective (internal) elements. Martin Bloom’s Configural Approach; environment includes primary groups, secondary groups, socio-cultural contexts, and physical environment and historical age. Functions of Social Environment by Norton: 1. Nurturing Environment (or immediate environment) is composed of people with whom a person interacts with frequently and often in an intimate manner (e.g. family, friends, close associates at work or school). 2. Sustaining Environment is made up of people s/he encounters, the wider community and broader society such as people who represent political organizations, economic resources, labor unions, the media, educational systems, health and care facilities, and human service programs (the social worker is also part of sustaining environment). Also considered the distant environment. Role Theory: Social work’s focus of concern is social functioning which results from person-situation interaction. Role refers to the socially expected behavior prescribed for a person occupying a particular status or position in a social system. A person's role in any situation is defined in three ways: from the perspective of the expectations of others for people in that role (prescribed role), the expectations of the person taking the role (perceived role), and that person's actual behaviors (enacted role). Role Theory: George Mc Call and J. L. Simmons (1996) describes five overlapping transactions that affect the person's role: 1. Recruitment - processes by which the individual's participation in a social system is determined by deciding criteria for membership in statuses and roles; may be ascriptive (by birth), conscriptive (by law), or achieved (by merit); 2. Socialization - processes through which individual participation is defined and refined as individuals learn to function as system members, such as processes by which people become aware of the expectations of others and learn the attitudes, knowledge, and abilities necessary to comply with those expectations; Role Theory: George Mc Call and J. L. Simmons (1996) describes five overlapping transactions that affect the person's role: 3. Interaction - processes through which participation in the system is implemented that allow members to influence one another and shape and reshape social systems; 4. Innovation - processes through which a person's participation in a system is altered or changed, which may be externally imposed (as in changes in the physical environment force system members to rethink the ways they relate to their environment), or internally planned (as in conditions within a society force new laws into being); 5. Social control - processes in which a person's participation in a system is limited or constrained. This may be implemented through positive (rewards) or negative (punishments) means. Role Theory: Concepts relating to role: 1. Status – one’s rank or standing 2. Norms – rules and standards of behavior 3. Roles sets or role clusters – array of roles 4. Role complementarity or reciprocity – e.g. parent-child 5. Role conflict – conflicting expectations because the person occupies two or more positions simultaneously. 6. Role incongruity – one’s own perception of one’s role is defined differently from the expectation of significant others in the system or environment. 1. ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS PERSPECTIVE A re-look at the ecological systems perspective which blends the ecosystems perspective of Bertalanffy and concept of ecological environment of Bronfenbrenner, further defines the foundation upon which the social worker is to anchor his/her practice. (Compton & Galaway 1999) ECOSYSTEMS PERSPECTIVE (SYSTEMS THEORY) The ecosystems perspective of social functioning holds that all things living or nonliving can be regarded as a system and all systems have properties that are capable of being studied; and change occurs because of the transactions between systems or between parts of a system. In contrast to the reductionist view that sees change by understanding the whole by breaking into parts, this perspective looks at the system as a whole and the relationships and interactions it has with other systems. (Brandell, 1997) This perspective presents a way of organizing information rather than explaining observations which focus on the interactions between systems. ECOSYSTEMS PERSPECTIVE (SYSTEMS THEORY) Systems theory states that behavior is influenced by a variety of factors that work together as a system. A person’s parents, friends, school, economic class, home environment and other factors all influence how a person thinks and acts. Seeking to help correct missing or ineffective parts of that system can have a positive impact on behavior. CONCEPTS 1. Open system – constant interaction 2. Closed system – do not interact with any other system 3. Boundaries – closed circle 4. Holon 5. Subsystem 6. Homeostasis – remain stable; steady state 7. Role 8. Relationship – dynamic interaction 9. Input 10.Output 11.Feedback (positive and negative) 12.Differentiation – from simple to complex components 13.Equifinality 14.Multifinality 15.Entropy – progress towards disorganization TYPES OF SOCIAL SYSTEM 1.Change agent system – agency 2.Client system – those who have asked service 3.Target system – change agents need to change or influence 4.Action system – worker interacts in a cooperative way 5.Professional system – PASWI, NASWEI 6.Problem identification system – acts to bring a potential client to the attention of the worker ECOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT The ecological environment concept which goes beyond the linear cause-and-effect relationship between social units within the system views that there are a number of additional environmental factors in human social systems that affect the dynamics within social systems, referred to collectively as ecological environment. CONCEPTS 1.Transaction – communication and interaction 2.Energy – natural power 3.Interface – the exact point at interaction takes place 4.Adaptation – capacity to adjust 5.Coping – struggle to overcome a problem 6.Interdependence – mutual reliance LEVELS OF SYSTEMS 1.Microsystem – direct environment we have in our lives 2.Mesosystem – involves the relationships between the microsystems in one's life 3.Exosystem – defines the larger social system in which the child does not function directly 4.Macrosystem – refers to the overall patterns of ideology and organization that characterize a given society or social group 5.Chronosystem – includes transitions and shifts in one's lifespan, socio-historical contexts that may influence a person ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS PERSPECTIVE This perspective characterizes the nature of relationships between systems as transactional and reciprocal between entities, or between their elements, in which each changes or otherwise influences the other over time. Such relationships are not linear, but are circular i.e., both systems in the interaction affect each other. It views individuals as both the cause and effect of their situations, and since the person is in a dynamic environment, each change s/he makes causes a reactive change in the larger system.  What is Personality? It is the impression an individual makes on others. It refers to his/her social skills, charismatic qualities, and the like (Hall, Calvin, and Gardner 1985). It is the individual's unique and relatively stable patterns of behavior, thoughts, and emotion (Burger, 1990).  What is Human Behavior? It is the potential and expressed capacity for physical, mental, and social activity during the phases of human life. THEORIES OF PERSONALITY FILIPINO PSYCHOLOGY VIRGILIO ENRIQUEZ (1942-1994) Sikolohiyang Pilipino (Filipino psychology) refers to the psychology born out of the experience, thought and orientation of the Filipinos, based on the full use of Filipino culture and language  Important Concepts 1. Hiya - Sibley (1965), an American scholar, translated hiya as ‘‘shame’’. Another American, Lynch (1961) saw hiya as ‘‘the uncomfortable feeling that accompanies awareness of being in a socially unacceptable position, or performing a socially unacceptable action.’ 2. Utang na loob was translated by Kaut (1961) as ‘‘debt of gratitude’’. Andres (1994, pp. 190–191) defined it, following Kaut’s logic, as ‘‘the principle of reciprocity incurred when an individual helps another.  Important Concepts Pakikisama was identified by Lynch (1961, 1973) as a Filipino value, giving it the English translation of maintaining ‘‘smooth interpersonal relations’’ by going along with the group or the majority decision, i.e., conformity. Thomas Andres published the Dictionary of Filipino Culture and Values, where he defined bahala na as ‘‘the Filipino attitude that makes him accept sufferings and problems, leaving everything to God. ‘Bahala na ang Diyos (God will take care of us)’... This attitude is a fatalistic resignation or withdrawal from an engagement or crisis or a shirking from personal responsibility’’ Kapwa – which is at the core of Filipino social psychology, and which is at the heart of the structure of Filipino values. PSYCHOANALYTIC PARADIGM SIGMUND FREUD (1856-1939) Classical Psychoanalysis Human beings are biological organisms motivated by the satisfaction of bodily needs. Views human behavior in terms of the dynamics or interaction of the driving forces of personality – desires, anxieties, conflicts, defenses, cognitive, emotional and motivational processes; consciously or unconsciously affect behavior.  Levels of Mental Life Unconscious - contains all the feeling, urges or instinct that are beyond our awareness but it affects our expression, feeling, action (e.g. Slip of tongue, dreams, wishes) Preconscious - facts stored in a part of the brain, which are not conscious but are available for possible use in the future. (e.g. A person will never think of her home address at that moment but when her friend ask for it, she can easily recall it) Conscious - only level of mental life that are directly available to us. The awareness of our own mental process (Thoughts/feeling)  Structures of Personality Id (pleasure principle) – has primitive and instinctive nature. Ego (reality principle) – arising from id, exists to deal rationally with its basic drives, also mediates between forces that operate on the id. Superego (morality principle) – arising from ego, acts as moral brake or counterforce to the practical concerns of the ego.  Structures of Personality Subdivisions of superego: Conscience - the internalized experiences for which a child is punished. When a child engages in this behavior or even just thinks about it, he or she feels “guilty”. Ego-ideal - the internalized experiences for which a child is rewarded. A child who engages in this behavior feels successful and proud.  Important Concepts Instincts An inborn psychological representation referred to as wish, which stems from a physiological condition referred to as a need. Impulses Eros – life instinct. Libido – the psychic energy associated with life instinct. Thanatos – death instinct.  Important Concepts Cathexis and Anti-cathexis Cathexis refers to a relationship or connection between a need and an object that satisfies the need. Anti-cathexis is the inhibition of an impulse by either the ego or the superego.  Important Concepts Anxiety The function of anxiety is to warn us that, if we continue thinking or behaving in a certain way, we will be in danger. There are three kinds of anxiety; a) Reality anxiety - caused by real, objective sources of danger in the environment. This is the easiest to reduce. e.g., fire and snake. b) Neurotic anxiety - fear that the id's impulses will over- whelm the ego and make the person do something for which he/ she will be punished. e.g., rape (becoming animal-like). c) Moral anxiety - fear of doing something contrary to the superego and thus experience guilt. e.g., cheating and stealing.  Defense Mechanisms An alternative approach to anxiety is distorting or denying the real situation. The ego protects the personality by falsifying the nature of the threat.  Defense Mechanisms Repression - when the ego prevents anxiety-provoking both thoughts from being entertained in the conscious level. It forces a potentially anxiety-provoking event, idea, or perception away from consciousness, thus precluding any possible resolution.  Defense Mechanisms Displacement - the substitution of one cathexis by another, the person's true desire. When displacement results in something beneficial, it is called sublimation. Impulses toward destruction of less threatening objects are called displaced aggression.  Defense Mechanisms Identification - the tendency to increase personal feelings of worth by taking on the characteristics of someone viewed as successful.  Defense Mechanisms Reaction Formation - objectionable thoughts are repressed by the expression of their opposite goals.  Defense Mechanisms Projection - the repression of anxiety-provoking behavior or thoughts and projected into someone else instead.  Defense Mechanisms Rationalization - justifying behavior or thoughts that are anxiety-provoking. It disguises our motives, rendering our actions morally acceptable.  Defense Mechanisms Rationalizations: Sour grapes: Pretending that one doesn’t want something, because one does not or cannot have it. The expression originated in “The Fox and the Grapes,” one of Aesop’s Fables. Sweet lemons: An idiom that is roughly the inverse of “sour grapes,” though much rarer: insisting that something unpleasant is in fact desirable, especially if it was actively sought for earlier.  Defense Mechanisms Regression – returning to an earlier stage of development when one experiences stress.  Defense Mechanisms Denial – Reality is distorted to make it suit to the individual’s wishes.  Defense Mechanisms Fantasy – seeking gratification of needs and frustrated desires through the imagination.  Defense Mechanisms Withdrawal – reducing ego involvement by becoming passive or learning to avoid being hurt.  Defense Mechanisms Intellectualization – separating the normal affect or feeling from an unpleasant or hurtful situation.  Defense Mechanisms Compensation – covering up weakness by emphasizing some desirable trait or reducing frustration in one area by over gratification in another area of life.  Tapping the Unconscious Mind 1. Free Association - A trained observer can gain some hints of the unconscious mind from conscious expressions. 2. Dream Analysis - Dreams are camouflaged or disguised thoughts. The manifest content of a dream is what it appears to be, while the latent content is the underlying repressed thought that caused the dream.  Tapping the Unconscious Mind Forms of dream distortion: a) Condensation - when a part of something symbolizes the whole thing. E.g., an article of clothing symbolizes a person; one street symbolizes a city. b) Synthesis - when an idea contained in a dream is actually a combination of many ideas in the latent content. E.g. childhood pet represents an entire family. c) Dislocation - displacement of unacceptable ideas to some- thing that is symbolically equivalent and acceptable. E.g., breast = mountains; penis = baseball bat.  Tapping the Unconscious Mind 3. Everyday Life - Freud believed that all human behaviors have a cause; nothing happens simply by chance. Little mistakes such as lapses of memory provide information about the unconscious mind. Slips of the tongue reveal unconscious motives. 4. Humor - Humor allows expression of repressed thoughts in a socially approved manner.  Psychosexual Stages of Development 1. Oral Stage Birth to 18 months Pleasure centers on the mouth – sucking, biting, chewing, licking, babbling Fixation : If the child is over stimulated in this stage, as an adult she/he may become dependent on cigarette or alcohol, become chatterbox, or derive pleasure from acquiring possessions(collect things) If the child is under stimulated in this stage, as an adult she/he will make bitingly sarcastic remarks or be argumentative  Psychosexual Stages of Development 2. Anal Stage 18 months until 3 years Pleasure focuses on bowel movement (withholding/eliminating feces) Fixation : If parents were over-emphasizing potty training, the child will develop a retentive character. He will become obstinate and stingy If parents were negligent about potty training, the child will develop expulsive trait such as bad temper, cruelty and messy disorderliness  Psychosexual Stages of Development 3. Phallic Stage 3 years to 6 years Pleasure zone is the sex organ/genitals Fixations : Oedipus complex in males / Electra complex in females The boy will have the desire to possess his mother and displace his father and the girl will want to possess the father and remove her mother Child whom had been fixated in this stage will develop a phallic character, such as reckless, proud and vain This conflict can also cause the child to be afraid of close relationship and weak sexual identity Freud stated that fixation may be a root of homosexuality  Psychosexual Stages of Development 4. Latency Stage 6 years to 11 years, until puberty No fixations occur as the child’s energy are focused on peer activities and personal mastery of learning and physical skills  Psychosexual Stages of Development 5. Genital Stage 12 years onwards Sexual interest in opposite sex increase The child improve their personal identities, develop caring feeling towards others, establish loving and sexual relationship and progress in successful careers. Fixation : Frigidity, impotence and unsatisfactory relationship CARL GUSTAV JUNG (1875-1961) Analytic Psychology The most prominent and distinctive feature of Jung’s view of humans is that it is combines teleology (human behavior has a purpose: it is drawn by the future just as much as it is pushed by the past) and causality (what a person will become is a function of what one has been in the past). Past experiences → push a person; Future goals  pull a person  Mandala Is the symbol of self.  Components of Psyche 1. Ego - everything we are conscious of, concerned with thinking, feeling, remembering and perceiving; responsible for seeing the functions of everyday life carried out; responsible for our sense of identity & our sense of continuity in time. 2. Personal Unconscious - consist of material that was once conscious but was repressed or forgotten; this material is readily available to the person, and with great deal of interaction between the id and the ego.  Components of Psyche 3. Collective Unconscious - reflects the collective or accumulation of ancestral experiences, which are registered in the brain, called archetypes (an inherited predisposition to respond to certain aspects of the world). 4. The Persona - Greek word for "mask" or "one's public self." This is part of the psyche by which we are known by other people.  Components of Psyche 5. Archetypes – symbolizes basic human motivations, values, and personalities. Anima – female component of the male psyche. Animus – masculine component of the female psyche. The father – Authority figure; stern; powerful The mother – Nurturing; comforting The child – Longing for innocence; rebirth; salvation The wise old man – Guidance; knowledge; wisdom The hero – Champion; defender; rescuer The maiden – Innocence; desire; purity The trickster – Deceiver; liar; trouble-maker  Components of Psyche 6. The Shadow - darkest and deepest part of the psyche; part of the collective unconscious which we inherit from pre-human ancestors which contains animal instincts, and because of this we have strong tendency to be immoral & aggressive. 7. The Self - that component of the psyche that attempts to harmonize all the other components; a person striving for unity, wholeness, and integration of the total personality toward self-actualization.  Two orientations (attitudes) the psyche could have in relating to the world: 1. Introversion. A person who tends to be quiet, imaginative and more interested in ideas than in other people. 2. Extroversion. A person tends to be sociable, outgoing & interested in people and things.  Functions of Thoughts It pertains to how a person perceives the world and deals with information and experiences. 1. Sensing - detects the presence of things, but does not indicate what it is. 2. Thinking - tells what a thing is; gives names to things that are sensed. 3. Feeling - tells whether a thing is acceptable or unacceptable; determines what a thing is worth to the individual; pertains to liking and disliking. 4. Intuiting - hunches about past or future events when factual information is not available.  Stages of Development 1. Childhood (birth to adolescence) - libidinal energy is expected in learning to walk, talk, and other skills necessary for survival. After the fifth year, libidinal energy is directed towards sexual activities, reaching its peak during adolescence.  Stages of Development 2. Young Adulthood (adolescence to 40) - libidinal energy is directed towards learning a vocation, getting married, raising children, and activities relating to community life. The individual is outgoing, energetic, impulsive, and passionate.  Stages of Development 3. Middle Age (from 40 to later years of life) - the most important stage because the person is transformed from an energetic, extroverted, and biologically oriented individual to one with a more sophisticated cultural, philosophical, and spiritual sense of value.  Progression and Regression Progression is a forward movement, meaning the conscious ego is adjusting satisfactorily to the demands of both the external world and the unconscious. Regression occurs when libidinal energy flows backward, away from the environment and inward into the unconscious. SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGICAL PARADIGM ALFRED ADLER (1870-1937) Individual Psychology Believed humans are motivated primarily by social urges and strive to develop a unique style of life.  Structures of Personality 1. Organ inferiority. People are more vulnerable to disease in organs that are less developed or "inferior" to other organs. Example: Someone born with a weak stomach or heart is more likely to have problems with these organs. 2. Feelings of inferiority. All children start life with feelings of inferiority because they are completely dependent on adults for survival. This feeling of being weak, inferior, and impotent stimulates an intense desire to seek power, thereby overcoming the feelings of inferiority.  Structures of Personality 3. Striving for superiority is a fundamental fact of life, an innate need from the time of birth. It is the master motive that leads people to pursue a superior or perfect society. 4. Style of life is the means by which an individual attempts to gain superiority. 5. Fictional finalism is the fictional future goal which a person aspires for. Adler called this a "guiding self-ideal." 6. Social interest is the innate need of all human beings to live in harmony and friendship with others and to aspire for the development of the perfect society.  Three entrance gates to mental life 1. Birth Order: The first born is the focus of attention until the next child is born, at which time he or she is "dethroned." The second born is extremely ambitious since he or she is constantly attempting to catch up and surpass the older sibling. The youngest is in the second worst position after the first born. He or she is usually spoiled, easily loses courage to succeed by his or her own effort, and can never be independent. The only child is never dethroned by another sibling, but experiences shock upon learning that he or she cannot remain the center of attention (e.g., in school). He or she is often very sweet and affectionate.  Three entrance gates to mental life 2. First memories is a research technique of asking a person to describe his or her earliest recollections. 3. Dream analysis is a method whereby a person's dream is used to provide a way of dealing with the person's life problems. ERIK HOMBERGER ERIKSON (1902-1994) Ego Psychology – stressing the autonomy of ego To Erikson, eight successive stages encompassing the life span. At each stage, we must cope with a crisis in either an adaptive or maladaptive way.  Epigenetic Principle of Maturation The idea that human development is governed by a sequence of stages that depend on genetic or hereditary factors. Crises - are special times in an individual's life - moments of decision between progress and regression, integration and retardation.  Three Interrelated Aspects of the Ego 1. Body ego refers to one's experience with his or her own body. This refers to the physical state such as being sickly, healthy, abused, battered, etc. 2. Ego ideal represents the image we have of ourselves as compared with an established ideal, such as role models or anyone that a person imitates. The standard that a person sets for himself or herself is based on how well the ego ideal is doing. 3. Ego identity is the image we have of ourselves in a variety of social roles. For example, someone can be both a mother and a daughter, but her actions would depend on who she is dealing with. Stages Crisis Virtue  Psychosocial Stages of Development 1. Oral-sensory Stage The time of our greatest helplessness The infant is totally dependent on someone else (mother or caregiver) for survival, security and affection  Psychosocial Stages of Development 2. Muscular-anal Stage Children rapidly develop a variety of physical and mental abilities and are able to do many things for themselves. Children are able to exercise some degree of choice, to experience the power of their autonomous will.  Psychosocial Stages of Development 3. Locomotor-genital Stage Children are able to accomplish more for themselves. They now have a strong desire to take the initiative in many activities. Desire to possess the parent of the opposite sex and in a feeling of rivalry with the parent of the same sex.  Psychosocial Stages of Development 4. Latency Stage The child is exposed in new social influences, both at home and school. The child will learn industriousness (good work and study habits), as a means of attaining praise and pleasure derived from the successful completion of task.  Psychosocial Stages of Development 5. Adolescence Stage Is the stage at which we must meet and resolve the crisis of our basic ego identity. Ego identity - the self-image formed during adolescence that integrates our ideas of what we are and what we want to be. Those who fail to achieve a cohesive identity, who experience an identity crisis, show what Erikson called role confusion. They don’t know who and what they are, where they belong, or where they want to go. Identity crisis - the failure to achieve ego identity during adolescence.  Psychosocial Stages of Development 6. Young Adulthood Stage Longer stage than the earlier ones. We establish our independence from parents and quasi-parental institutions, such as college, and begin to function as mature, responsible adults.  Psychosocial Stages of Development 7. Adulthood Stage A need to be actively and directly involved in teaching and guiding the new generation. When middle-aged people cannot find an outlet for generativity, they may become overwhelmed by “stagnation, boredom, and interpersonal impoverishment.  Psychosocial Stages of Development 8. Maturity and Old Age Stage Confronted with a choice of between ego integrity or despair It is a time of reflection, of examining our life and taking its final measure. Ego Integrity - accepting one’s place and one’s past. Despair - reviewing life with a sense of frustration and regrets KAREN DANIELSEN HORNEY (1885-1952) Feminine Psychology Horney believed that cultural conditions influence personality conflicts rather than the demands from the environment. Horney described parental behavior that undermines a child's security as a "basic evil." A child who is abused by the parent in one or more ways develops basic hostility towards the parents. He or she must repress the hostile feelings in order to survive (Basic Anxiety).  Adjustments to Basic Anxiety Ten Neurotic Trends or Needs 1. Need for affection and approval. The individual lives to be loved and admired by others. 2. Need for a partner who will run one's life. The individual needs to be affiliated with someone who will protect him or her from danger and fulfill all his or her needs. 3. Need to live one's life within narrow limits. The individual is very conservative and avoids defeat by attempting very little. 4. Need for power. The individual tends to glorify strength and despise weakness. 5. Need to exploit others. The individual dreads being taken advantage of by others, and yet thinks constantly about how to take advantage of other people.  Adjustments to Basic Anxiety Ten Neurotic Trends or Needs 6. Need for social recognition. The individual lives to be recognized; his or her highest goal is to gain prestige. 7. Need for personal admiration. The individual likes to be flattered and complimented and wants to be seen as the idealized image they have of themselves. 8. Need for ambition and personal achievement. The individual has an intense desire to become famous, rich, or important, regardless of the means. 9. Need for self-sufficiency and independence. The individual goes to great extremes to avoid being obligated to anyone and does not want to be tied down to anything or anyone. Enslavement is avoided at all costs. 10. Need for perfection and unavailability. The individual attempts to be flawless because of hypersensitivity to criticism.  Adjustments to Basic Anxiety Primary Adjustment Techniques: 1. Moving towards people – If I give in, I will not be hurt 2. Moving against people – If I have power, no one will hurt me 3. Moving away from people – If I withdraw, nothing can hurt me  Adjustments to Basic Anxiety Real Self and Ideal Self Real self - things that are true about us at any particular time. Ideal self - our concept of what we would like to become.  Adjustments to Basic Anxiety Secondary Adjustment Techniques: 1. Blind spots. Denying or ignoring certain aspects of an experience that are not in accordance with one's idealized self-image. 2. Compartmentalization. Dividing one's life into various components with different rules. 3. Rationalization. Giving good reasons to excuse conduct that might otherwise provoke anxiety. 4. Excessive self-control. Guarding against anxiety by control- ling one's emotions.  Adjustments to Basic Anxiety Secondary Adjustment Techniques: 5. Externalization (Projection). Feeling that all major influences in life are external to one's self. 6. Arbitrary rightness. When an issue that has no clear solution arises, the person arbitrarily chooses one position, thereby ending the debate. 7. Elusiveness. Never making a decision about anything. 8. Cynicism. Not believing in anything, and instead taking pleasure in pointing out the absence of meaning in other people's beliefs. LEARNING AND BEHAVIORAL PARADIGM IVAN PAVLOV (1849-1936) Classical Conditioning is a learning process that occurs through associations between an environmental stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus.  Four Components of Conditioning 1. The Unconditioned Stimulus is one that unconditionally, naturally, and automatically triggers a response. 2. The Unconditioned Response is the unlearned response that occurs naturally in response to the unconditioned stimulus. 3. The Conditioned Stimulus is previously neutral stimulus that, after becoming associated with the unconditioned stimulus, eventually comes to trigger a conditioned response. 4. The Conditioned Response is the learned response to the previously neutral stimulus. BURRHUS FREDERIC SKINNER (1904-1990) Operant Reinforcement Learning Paradigm Operant Conditioning is the type of learning in which behaviors are emitted to earn rewards or avoid punishment.  Reinforcement Is something that happens after a behavior or event that strengthens or increases behavior likely to occur again. Positive reinforcement (reward/praise) are favorable events or outcomes that are presented after the behavior. A behavior is strengthened by the addition of something. Negative reinforcement (removal) in these situations, a response is strengthened by the removal of something considered unpleasant. (e.g. headache -by taking aspirin headache gone) Primary Reinforcers – known without being learned. E.g. biological needs. Secondary Reinforcers – learned value or conditioned reinforcement. E.g. money, praises.  Punishment Is the presentation of an adverse event or outcome that causes a decrease in the behavior it follows. Positive punishment (treat) referred to as punishment by application, involves the presentation of unfavorable event or outcome in order to weaken the response it follows. Negative punishment (taking away annoying/painful) known as punishment by removal, occurs when a favorable event or outcome is removed after behavior occurs.  Extinction Response occurs when it is no longer rewarded or reinforced.  Shaping Is a process of reinforcing a series of responses that increasingly resemble the desired behavior. Components: 1. Differential reinforcement, where some responses are reinforced but others are not. 2. Successive approximation, where some responses are reinforced successively but others are not. ALBERT BANDURA (1925-2021) Social Learning Theory – focuses on conditions that affect the acquisition, performance, and maintenance of behavior.  Bobo Doll Experiment Demonstrated that children are able to learn social behavior such as aggression through the process of observation learning, through watching the behavior of another person.  Reciprocal Determinism Is a central concept of Albert Bandura's social learning theory. Also known as triadic reciprocality, reciprocal determinism is a model composed of three factors that influence behavior: the individual (including how they think and feel), their environment, and the behavior itself.  Self-regulation and Goal-setting Goal-setting is a powerful source of self-motivation.  Self-reinforcement vs Vicarious Learning Self-reinforcement is a Is a way of learning process whereby individuals that allows individuals to control their own behavior by learn from the experience of rewarding themselves when others. a certain standard of performance has been attained or surpassed.  Self-efficiency Bandura argued that fear is largely a product of perceived inefficiency. We are afraid of situations we feel incapable of handling. As efficiency increases, fear diminishes.  Observational learning Is the process where a person's behavior changes as a result of being exposed to the behavior of another person, the model. 1. Live modeling refers to observing models "in the flesh," ie, models that are physically present. 2. Symbolic modeling involves being exposed to models indirectly, e.g., through movies, books, or oral descriptions of a person's behavior.  Observational learning Three stages of observational learning 1. Exposure - observation of action 2. Acquisition - learning an activity 3. Acceptance - whether or not the observer uses the modeling cues as a guide for his or her behavior  Observational learning Three effects of observation and imitation 1. Modeling effect - An observer attends to and imitates a new model, but the behavior must be those they are capable of doing. 2. Disinhibitory effect - Modeling can release a whole class of behavior that is usually inhibited. 3. Eliciting effect - The observer can match the model's behavior with responses already in their repertoire or learned earlier. ERICK FROMM (1900-1980) Social Psychological Theory Believed that human beings are not genetically aggressive. The desire to destroy emerges only when life are frustrated.  Five Character Types 1. The Receptive Type stems from a masochistic orientation wherein the person believes the source of all things is outside him/ herself. 2. The Exploitative Type has sadistic behavior patterns wherein the person believes the source of all good things is outside of him/herself but does not expect to receive it, so it must be taken forcibly. 3. The Hoarding Type has a tendency to hold on to what it has. 4. The Marketing Type treats oneself as a commodity, obeying the laws of supply and demand. 5. The Productive Type values him/herself and others for what they are and experiences security and inner peace. HARRY STACK SULLIVAN (1892-1949) Interpersonal Theory People are socially created animals.  Stages of Development The period of infancy is from birth to the appearance of article speech. It is the period in which the oral zone is the primary zone of interaction between the baby and its environment.  Stages of Development The transition from infancy to childhood starts with the learning of language and the organization of experiences in the syntactic mode. Childhood extends from the emergence of articulate speech to the appearance of the need for playmates.  Stages of Development The juvenile stage extends through most of the grammar school years. This is the period of becoming social, acquiring experiences of subordination to authority figures outside the family, it becoming competitive and cooperative, and learning the meaning of ostracism, disparagement, and group feelings.  Stages of Development The relatively brief period of pre-adolescence is marked by the need for an intimate relationship with a peer of the same sex, a friend to whom one can confide and with whom one can collaborate to meet the tasks and solve the problems of life.  Stages of Development The main problem of early adolescence is the development of a pattern of heterosexual activity.  Stages of Development Late adolescence extends from the patterning of preferred genital activity through unnumbered educative steps to the establishment of a fully human and mature repertory of interpersonal relations as permitted by available opportunity, personal, and cultural. PERSONOLOGY HENRY MURRAY (1893-1988) Murray believed that human behavior may be understood through the processes of satisfying motives and needs.  Stages of Personality During the first stage, new structural compositions emerge and multiply. During middle years are marked by conservative recompositions of the already emerged structures and functions. During senescense, the capacity to form new compositions and recompositions decreases, while the atrophy of existing forms and functions increases. TRAIT PARADIGM GORDON ALLPORT (1897-1967) Psychology of Individuals – emphasizing person’s uniqueness He emphasized the nature and evolution of personality traits.  Structures of Personality Personality dispositions: Cardinal disposition - traits that dominate the personality, influencing almost everything a person does. Central disposition - characteristics which typifies a person's behavior. Each person has a few (usually five to ten) central traits. Secondary disposition - responses to particular stimuli which may occur on rare occasions. These are not really considered important dispositions, e.g., habits, interests, and preferences.  Functional Autonomy Represents the present "go" of interests and tendencies that initiates and sustains current behavior. Two types of functional autonomy: Preservative functional autonomy - a closed or almost closed system which continues on its own with little or no outside reinforcement. It is a self-sustaining circuit mechanism. Propionate functional autonomy - an open system which presupposes that the individual is constantly bombarded with stimuli.  Learning Principle Propium refers to "the aspects of personality which together (make for) seem singularly one's own.  Personality Development Allport believed that, at birth, an individual lacks the unique distinctiveness that will make up his or her personality. The formation of personality develops with growth and maturation. HANS J. EYSENCK (1916-1997) Biological Typology GEORGE KELLY (1905-1967) Personal Construct Theory Kelly's theory can be categorized as phenomenological because it studies intact subjective experience; cognitive, because it stresses the study of mental events; existential, because it emphasizes the future and the capacity to select one's own destiny; and humanistic, because it recognizes an individual's creative abilities which can be directed at solving their personal and/ or sociological problems.  The CPC Cycle The CPC cycle characterizes the actions of a person confronted with a novel situation. Circumspection phase. A person tries a number of prepositional constructs which are possible interpretations that can be labeled cognitive trial and error. Preemption phase. A person chooses a number of constructs that seem especially relevant to the situation. Control phase. A choice is actually made, and a course of action is established. Constructs chosen are those believed to best define and extend ones construct system.  Eleven Corollaries 1. Construction corollary. "A person anticipates events by construing their replications." We view events in terms of similar past experiences. 2. Individual corollary. "Persons differ from each other in their unique construction of events." No two individuals are exactly alike in their judgment of all things. 3. Organization corollary. "Each person characteristically evolves, for his convenience in anticipating events, a construction system embracing Ordinal relationships between constructs. 4. Dichotomy corollary. "A person's constructive system is composed of a finite number of dichotomous constructs." An individual's constructs consist of pairs of opposites, eg, good- bad, kind-cruel, etc.  Eleven Corollaries 5. Choice corollary. "A person chooses for himself that alternative in a dichotomized construct through which he anticipates the greater possibility for extension and definition of his system." 6. Range corollary. "A construct is convenient for the anticipation of a finite range of events only." When we cannot construe an event, we experience anxiety. 7. Experience corollary. "A person's construction system varies as he successively construes the replications of events." Humans are active reacting organisms. 8. Modulation corollary. "The variation in a person's construction system is limited by the permeability of the constructs within whose range of convenience the variants lie." Permeability refers to the degree in which a construct is open to the interpretation of new events.  Eleven Corollaries 9. Fragmentation corollary. "A person may successively employ a variety of construction subsystems which are inferentially incompatible with each other." 10.Commonality corollary. "To the extent that one person employs a construction of experience which is similar to that employed by another, his psychological processes are similar to those of the other person." 11.Socially corollary. "To the extent that one person construes the construction processes of another, he may play a role in a social process involving the other person." CARL ROGERS (1902-1987) Person-Centered Theory Rogers believed that the ultimate goal of each one is to be a fully functioning person.  Important Concepts Actualizing Tendency The basic human motivation to actualize, maintain, and enhance the self. Need for Positive Regard Rogers viewed the child as having two basic needs: positive regard from other people and self-worth.  Important Concepts Conditional Positive Regard Is where positive regard, praise and approval, depend upon the child, for example, behaving in ways that the parents think correct. Hence the child is not loved for the person he or she is, but on condition that he or she behaves only in ways approved by the parent(s). Unconditional Positive Regard Is where parents, significant others (and the humanist therapist) accepts and loves the person for what he or she is. Positive regard is not withdrawn if the person does something wrong or makes a mistake.  Fully Functioning Person 1. Open to experience: both positive and negative emotions accepted. Negative feelings are not denied, but worked through (rather than resorting to ego defense mechanisms) 2. Existential living: in touch with different experiences as they occur in life, avoiding prejudging and preconceptions. Being able to live and fully appreciate the present, not always looking back to the past or forward to the future (i.e. living for the moment).  Fully Functioning Person 3. Trust feelings: feeling, instincts and gut-reactions are paid attention to and trusted. People’s own decisions are the right ones and we should trust ourselves to make the right choices. 4. Creativity: creative thinking and risk taking are features of a person’s life. A person does not play safe all the time. This involves the ability to adjust and change and seek new experiences. 5. Fulfilled life: person is happy and satisfied with life, and always looking for new challenges and experiences. ABRAHAM MASLOW (1908-1970) Humanistic Psychology Maslow advocated a holistic analytic approach to studying the total person, and emphasized their positive qualities. His theory was concerned with growth motivation, which can be gained through self-actualization.  Jonah Complex Fear of being one’s best.  Characteristics of Self-Actualizing People More Efficient Perception of The peak experience Reality Gemeinschaftsgefühl Acceptance of Self, others Profound interpersonal and nature relations Spontaneity, Simplicity, Democratic character Naturalness structure Problem-centering Discrimination between Need for privacy means and ends Autonomy Philosophical sense of humor Continued freshness of Creativeness appreciation Resistance to Enculturation LUDWIG BINSWANGER (1881-1966) Existential Psychology Existential psychology views people as ongoing, changing, and continually striving towards a future state of fulfillment. According to Binswanger: Personality is determined by the individual's freedom of choice and not by genetic factors. Optimistic about human existence; people live to achieve an authentic life, find sound values, and grow as a person. Human beings continually change and strive towards a future state of fulfillment in order to build meaningful and socially constructive lives. Present situations determine/affect the future. Existentialism emphasizes the immediacy of experience as the individual lives it. Healthy persons are those who have the courage to live and act at their best and find meaning in existence. ROLLO REESE MAY EXISTENTIAL PSYCHOLOGY THE BASIC NATURE OF HUMAN BEINGS Dasein [da-there, sein-to exist or be alive] or being-in-the-world A conscious and unconscious sense of oneself as a distinct, autonomous, and responsible entity.  MODES OF BEING-IN-THE-WORLD (DASEIN) UMWELT MITWELT EIGENWELT (world around) (with-world) (own-world) The world of internal The world of relationship The world of relationship and external objects, to other people. to oneself, and to one’s which forms our own potentials and physiological and values. physical environment. Thrownness (facticity) A term referring to those few aspects of existence into which we are cast by birth and cannot control through our own choices, including such factual conditions as having instinctual needs and a culture with certain expectations. Nonbeing and Anxiety Death – Is one aspect of being-in-the-world that none of us ever escapes, and it may terminate our existence at any moment. Anxiety – Apprehension caused by a threat to some value deemed essential to the existence of one’s personality; the awareness that one can be destroyed, physically or psychologically, and become nothing. GUILT Regret resulting from the impossibility of fulfilling all of one’s innate potentials, of relating perfectly to others, and of always recognizing our communion with nature. INTENTIONALITY The capacity of human beings to have a conscious and unconscious sense of purpose, and behave teleologically. Will – the conscious capacity to move toward one’s self-selected goals; thus, more self-evident aspect of intentionality. LOVE AND CARE LOVE - A delight in the presence of another person, and readiness to affirm that person’s values and development as much as one’s own. CARE – The feeling that something in life does matter. Love always involves a blending of four components, albeit in varying proportions: SEX EROS PHILIA AGAPE AS IN FREUDIAN A STRIVING FOR FRIENDSHIP AND A NONPOSSESSIVE THEORY, OUR NEED FULFILLMENT LIKING DEVOTION TO THE FOR SEX IS THROUGH UNION WELFARE OF THE SATISFIED THROUGH WITH SIGNIFICANT OTHER PERSON. DRIVE REDUCTION OTHERS. AND PHYSICAL RELEASE. DAIMONIC Innate benign and illicit forces capable of dominating one’s entire personality, such as sex, passion and eros, procreation, self- affirmation, destructiveness, rage, hostility, and the quest for power.  STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT 1. Innocence - an infant has few drives other than the will to live. 2. Rebellion - a developing child seeks freedom but cannot properly care for herself. 3. Decision - a transitional stage during which a teenager or young adult makes decisions about his or her life, while seeking further independence from her parents. 4. Ordinary - the stage of adulthood. Overwhelmed by its demands, young adults tend to seek protection in conformity and tradition. 5. Creative - this marks a point of productive, creative self- actualization during which a person moves past egotism and self- involvement. THE STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY May adopts an essentially holistic approach to personality, one that excludes any specific structural constructs. He does accept the importance of the unconscious, however, and of repression and other Freudian defense mechanism. THE DEVELOPMENT OF PERSONALITY May warns that such damaging parental errors as overprotection, overpermissiveness, domination, rejection, and hypocrisy are likely to shatter child’s independence and Dasein. For the most part, however, he devotes little attention to personality development. COGNITIVE AND MORAL PARADIGM JEAN PIAGET (1896-1980) Theory of Cognitive Development - looked at how children develop intellectually throughout the course of childhood.  Schema A schema is a cognitive framework or concept that helps organize and interpret information. Schemas can be useful because they allow us to take shortcuts in interpreting the vast amount of information that is available in our environment.  Assimilation The process of taking in new information into our previously existing schema's.  Accommodation Involves altering existing schemas, or ideas, as a result of new information or new experiences. New schemas may also be developed during this process.  Equilibration As children progress through the stages of cognitive development, it is important to maintain a balance between applying previous knowledge (assimilation) and changing behavior to account for new knowledge (accommodation).  Stages of Development 1. The sensorimotor stage: The first stage of development lasts from birth to approximately age two. At this point in development, children know the world primarily through their senses and motor movements. 2. The preoperational stage: The second stage of development lasts from the ages of two to seven and is characterized by the development of language and the emergence of symbolic play. 3. The concrete operational stage: The third stage of cognitive development lasts from the age of seven to approximately age 11. At this point, logical thought emerges, but children still struggle with abstract and theoretical thinking. 4. The formal operation stage: In the fourth and final stage of cognitive development, lasting from age 12 and into adulthood, children become much more adept at abstract thought and deductive reasoning.  Today, Alfred Binet is often cited ALFRED BINET (1857-1911) as one of the most influential psychologists in history. While his intelligence scale serves as the basis for modern intelligence tests, Binet himself did not believe that his test measured a permanent or inborn degree of intelligence. According to Binet, an individual's score can vary. He also suggested that factors such as motivation and other variables can play a role in test scores. LAWRENCE KOHLBERG (1927-1987) Moral Development - focuses on how children develop morality and moral reasoning.  Stages of Moral Development 1. In Stage one (obedience and punishment driven), individuals focus on the direct consequences of their actions on themselves. 2. In Stage two (self-interest driven) espouses the "what's in it for me" position, in which right behavior is defined by whatever the individual believes to be in their best interest but understood in a narrow way which does not consider one's reputation or relationships to groups of people.  Stages of Moral Development 3. In Stage three (interpersonal accord and conformity driven), the self enters society by filling social roles. 4. In Stage four (authority and social order obedience driven), it is important to obey laws, dictums and social conventions because of their importance in maintaining a functioning society.  Stages of Moral Development 5. In Stage five (social contract driven), the world is viewed as holding different opinions, rights and values. 6. In Stage six (universal ethical principles driven), moral reasoning is based on abstract reasoning using universal ethical principles.  Heinz Dilemma A story of a middle-aged ordinary middle-class man, called Heinz is considered as an example. His wife suffers from a dreadful disease. Doctors believe that a special drug which was invented recently and is available at the BIG pharma store, can only save his wife. When Heinz went to buy the drug, the drug-seller cost it around 2,000dollars,whiletheactualmanufacturingcostofthedrugis2,000d ollars. Heinz borrowed the money from friends and lenders and could finally collect only $1,000 dollars. Though Heinz pleaded a lot, the greedy drug-seller refused to sell the drug at a low cost. Now, Heinz had no other option but to steal the drug from the shop to save the life of his wife.  Heinz Dilemma Now, What Is Your Answer? This can be answered in three ways, which denote the ways of thinking. Heinz should not steal the drug because it is the disobedience of law. This decision makes Heinz be unable to save his wife. His wife dies and the rich drug-seller becomes richer. Though the law was obeyed, no moral justice was done. This is a Pre-conventional level of Moral thinking. Heinz can steal the drug but should be punished by the law. This decision lets Heinz save his wife, but Heinz will be kept in prison. Though Heinz took a moral decision, he had to undergo the punishment. This is a Conventional level of Moral thinking. Heinz can steal the drug and no law should punish him. This decision lets Heinz save his wife and both of them can live happily. This thinking is based on the thought that the rigidity in law should be rejected and justice should be done on moral grounds. This is a Post-conventional level of Moral thinking. CAROL GILLIGAN (1936-PRESENT) Gilligan’s work on moral development outlines how a woman’s morality is influenced by relationships and how women form their moral and ethical foundation based on how their decisions will affect others. Gilligan's theory focused on both care-based morality and justice-based morality.  Stages of Moral Development 1. Preconvention morality – During this stage, there is a strong focus on survival and self-interest. 2. Conventional – During this stage, women prioritize selflessness and caring about others. 3. Post conventional – In the final stage of moral development, women emphasize taking responsibility for the consequences of their choices and gaining control of their own lives. Caring for others is a strong component of this high stage of moral development. Thank you!