What is Critical Reasoning? - Definition, Skills, and Competencies

What is critical reasoning? What is the use of philosophy, if all it does is enable you to talk about some abstruse questions of logic, etc., and if it does not improve your thinking about the important questions of everyday life? - Ludwig Wittgenstein Every day we are bombarded with arguments, a...

What is critical reasoning? What is the use of philosophy, if all it does is enable you to talk about some abstruse questions of logic, etc., and if it does not improve your thinking about the important questions of everyday life? - Ludwig Wittgenstein Every day we are bombarded with arguments, arguments that are often based on fallacious reasoning with the aim of manipulating our thinking and behavior encounter these arguments in our reading on the radio. on television, via the internet and. of course. in advertisements. However, the ever-increasing complexity of information technology, the perplexity of human interactions, the diversity of societies in South Africa and globally, and the demands of the workplace require people who can think critically and who can make informed decisions. It is important to critically examine the way in which we judge. evaluate and act, because the decisions we make may have an important influence not only on defining, experiencing and presenting ourselves, but also on the way we perceive and influence other people, shape the world and touch the lives of others. The aim of this chapter is to explain what critical reasoning is and to explore some basic critical reasoning competencies. We will unpack these critical reasoning competencies to emphasize the importance of critical self-reflection in our quest for clear thinking. We will begin to understand how societal values, preconceived ideas and cultural attitudes cloud our perceptions and attitudes and stand in the way of clear thinking. Introduction to critical reasoning Critical reasoning is not a new field of study. It is as old as philosophy itself. The history of the quest for wisdom and critical self-reflection goes back as far as the ancient Ifa (Yoruba) oral philosophy associated with Orunmila (c 4000 3 the prophet of the Ifa religion and father of African philosophy; the pre-Socratic philosophers such as Thales (c 625 545 BC), Anaximander (c 610- 547 BC). Pythagoras (c 578- -510) and Heraclitus (c 540 480 BC); the ancient Indian philosophers such as Mahavira (born 599 BC) and Buddha (born 563 BC); the ancient Chinese philosophers such as Lao Tzu (c 600 BC) and Confucius (556- 479 BC); and the Greek philosophers such as Socrates (470- -399 BC),\" Plato (427-347 BC) and Aristotle (384-322 BC). Orunmila expressed the path to wisdom in two maxims, \"know thyself\" and \"as above SO below\" Buddha believed the path to wisdom and truth to be \'insight into the causes of error results in the enlightenment of self\" Confucius taught that the root of wisdom lies in sincerity of thought, which is attained through a critical investigation of things Socrates never put his philosophical teachings into writing. but taught orally. His philosophical method consisted of a dialogue with the arguer. Socrates would critically question the basis of the arguer\'s knowledge and, in the process of critical inquiry, he would reveal the assumptions and preconceived ideas on which the arguer\'s knowledge claims were based. Socrates was sentenced to death for corrupting the youth of Athens. He respected the sentence. even though he could have escaped from jail on several occasions. He drank the fatal cup of hemlock, not because he thought that the sentence was justified, but because he was prepared to die for his belief in pursuit of truth and wisdom through critical enquiry. For Socrates \"the unexamined is not worth living\" These are only few examples from the long history of world philosophy where philosophers applied critical reasoning in their search for wisdom and justice. There are many more examples for you to explore. Let us get back. however, to our own epoch and consider a more recent example of a critical attitude towards things we take for granted. In his quest for truth and wisdom, Ludwig Wittgenstein, a leading analytical philosopher of the twentieth century, emphasizes that the goal of philosophy is not knowledge. but understanding (wisdom). According to Wittgenstein it is not enough to convince someone of the truth; it is not enough to state it. Instead, one must find the path from error to truth. What Wittgenstein means is that. on our Journeys to wisdom, we must first find the path leading us out of the fog - out of our fallacious reasoning (that is, reasoning based on unsubstantiated claims and wrong-headed beliefs), our misconceptions, prejudices and preconceived ideas. The path from error to truth, that is, the path out of the fog, is the pathway to critical reasoning. Critical reasoning, therefore, goes beyond acquiring knowledge and reasoning skills. The ultimate goal of critical reasoning is to know (discern) how to apply knowledge and skills wisely. Furthermore, we need to understand that knowledge and skills are empty without wisdom. Being able to apply knowledge wisely requires a philosophical attitude characterized by thinking critically and constantly being in a state of critical self-reflection. Note that I use the terms \'critical reasoning\' and \'critical thinking\' interchangeably in this book. When I speak of critical reasoning, this implies \'critical thinking\', and vice versa. With these preliminary remarks in mind, let us pause for a moment and reflect upon the phrase critical reasoning\'. The question we are here concerned about is, \'What is critical reasoning? A basic search on the internet will reveal that there are several classic and recent definitions of critical reasoning. Below I give you my definition of critical reasoning. Bear in mind that this is not the only definition of critical reasoning. Critical reasoning is active, reflective and informed thinking that involves the ability to deliberately and skillfully question. analyze, interpret and evaluate ideas and beliefs in the light of the reasons. or evidence, which support them. Let us analyze this definition to draw out some of the basic skills, or competencies, that underlie critical reasoning. By defining critical, reasoning as active and reflective thinking, we are saying that critical reasoning is essentially an active process and a reflective activity which involves us raising critical questions ourselves and thinking statements and ideas through for ourselves, rather than passively receiving information from someone else and gullibly accepting the ideas and beliefs of other people. We will call this competency the ability to think for yourself. We will discuss this component of critical reasoning in more detail in the section to follow. By defining critical reasoning as informed thinking, I am contrasting it with the kind of thinking which is based on personal beliefs, ideas and perceptions that are not supported by evidence and well-substantiated reasons. An important feature of critical reasoning is to reflect critically on the implications of our beliefs and to give reasons or evidence in support of our beliefs and claims. We will call this critical reasoning competency the ability to reason critically in an informed way. We shall discuss this component of critical reasoning in more detail in the section to follow. By saying that critical reasoning involves the ability to deliberately and skillfully question, analyze, interpret and evaluate ideas and beliefs, I am saying that the ability to reason critically requires certain reasoning skills, these being ability to (I) recognize problems; (ii) question assumptions, values and motives; to: (iii) analyze arguments; (iv) clarify and interpret data and ideas; (v)evaluate arguments; and (vi) judge the acceptability and soundness of claims. I believe that these skills can be developed and improved with practice. Acquiring and developing these reasoning skills are thus not limited to a person\'s intelligence, no matter how gifted or limited that may be, we shall discuss each of these points in detail in the course of this book and I will help you to develop these skills and improve your ability to reason well. Before we continue with the third critical reasoning competency, which is embedded in our definition of critical reasoning, let us pause for a moment and consider how critical reasoning differs from formal logic. In the past many people have asked me what the difference is between critical reasoning and formal logic. My answer is as follows: the similarity between critical reasoning and formal logic is that both deal with argumentation and argument analysis. However, there are fundamental differences between the two. These differences have to do with scope and applicability. Formal logic examines the formal structure of arguments in logical language (meaning formalizing or symbolizing ordinary words into a logical language) and it employs precise rules for testing the validity of arguments. Critical reasoning, on the other hand, explores the nature and function of arguments in natural language and is concerned with the art of argumentation rather than the formal theory of reasoning. Critical reasoning includes more than studying the structure and the validity of arguments in the sense that it reflects on the quality, character and soundness of arguments. It therefore has a much broader scope than formal logic. Whereas formal logic generally ignores the meaning on of statements in natural language (everyday spoken language, whether it is English, Afrikaans, Zulu, Sotho, or Xhosa), critical reasoning takes into account the following: That statements (premises and conclusions) have meaning as statements and as courses of action That statements have an emotive side because arguments expressed in natural language are seldom impersonal and value free. Values, attitudes, feelings, assumptions and preconceived ideas are embedded in natural language and these can easily influence our reasoning. The quality of argumentation. This includes the meaning and acceptability of arguments (not only the formal structure and its validity), being aware how prejudice can influence our reasoning, how to use observation skills how to be aware of different points of view, how to evaluate arguments, how to be culturally sensitive, how to be aware of preconceived ideas, and problem solving and decision-making. The third competency are definition speaks about has to do with the ability to know how to apply the critical reasoning skills you have acquired wisely and reasonably. This means that you, as a critical thinker, need to reflect critically on your own biases, believes, and prejudicial attitudes before you can adopt a critical attitude towards the ideas and beliefs of other people. Critical reasoning is not about \"trashing\" other people\'s ideas, beliefs and arguments. Instead, critical reasoning requires you to be constructive and creative by weighing up different points of view, offering alternative solutions to problems, and considering other possibilities and options. Being able to apply knowledge wisely requires a philosophical attitude of critical self-reflection. We will discuss this in more detail in the section to follow. Before you join me in a more detailed exploration of the basic critical reasoning competencies take a moment to refer back to your initial response to the question \"what is critical reasoning?\" Three basic critical reasoning competencies 1\. Think for yourself Reasoning or thinking is different from daydreaming, mere reflex actions, and mechanical activities such as brushing your teeth or replacing a light bulb. Thinking or reasoning is a higher order mental activity that involves judgment and coherence. Reasoning is purposeful thinking; it is there for goal directed. For instance, analyzing a complex philosophical text, or creating mind maps to capture the key aspects of critical reasoning are both acts of purposeful thinking. Critical reasoning is however more than just purposeful thinking. To think critically means to think for ourselves. To think for ourselves involves a critical attitude of reflection upon how we think in various areas of our lives. To think critically is to question the world and thus to engage critically with the possibilities and alternatives that the world offers. When we follow the instructions of others thoughtlessly, except the authority of others without question, or take things for granted, we are not thinking critically. To reason critically is to think for yourself by challenging authority and critically examining Dogma, that is, unquestioned knowledge claims. Think about the anti-apartheid struggle and how chief Albert Luthuli and Nelson Mandela challenge the apartheid system in South Africa. Play critical question the large number of apartheid clause such as the population registration act (1950), prohibition of mixed marriages act (1949), immortality amendment act (1950), group areas act (1950), native laws amendment act (1952), Bantu education act (1953-1955), and the Pass laws. All these laws were meant to put apartheid, that is, the white domination of all other races, into practice. Certain critical thinker spoke out against the oppressive system of white Supremacy. One of them was a young black lawyer who was arrested after the Sharpeville Massacre in 1960. His name was Nelson Mandela. Mandela not only played a major role in South Africa\'s history but also became the first black president of South Africa and a global icon of racial harmony, justice and equity. Mandela did not passively and unquestioningly accept the ideas and beliefs of apartheid but actively questioned those beliefs and values. 2\. Informed reasoning We said that to reason critically means to think for yourself. We explained that people who reason critically do not take things for granted instead they think for themselves and ask critical questions about the claims, beliefs and opinions of others. When people learn to think for themselves, they challenge repressive systems and oppressive governments. Challenging repressive systems and oppressive governments requires the critical examination and questioning of preconceived ideas and societal beliefs as well as political amenities such as labeling, gender discrimination, racism, sexism, fascism, segregation and religious fundamentalism. Questioning ideas, arguments and the claims of authority critically is, however, not enough. Critical reasoning also involves offering well informed and reasoned alternatives. We cannot, however, offer alternatives if we are unable to determine the difference between weak and strong arguments, between unsubstantiated claims and well supported reasoning. Telling the difference between unsubstantiated opinions and well-informed opinions is an important first component in critical reasoning. An opinion is a personal belief or an idea about the value, usefulness, meaning, and so on of a state of affairs in the world. Opinions are generally based on people\'s perceptions and are there for relative to the speaker\'s own experience, feelings, and State of Mind. Opinions are often insufficiently supported and are thus disputable. An informed opinion however is supported by reasons for the soundness or acceptability of claims we make. As critical thinkers we should be prepared to set out the reasons for our opinions. When we offer sound reasons for our claims we are engaging in critical argumentation. In chapter 6 We Shall discuss the difference between weak and strong arguments in more detail. 3\. Critical self-reflection Being able to think for yourself, make your voice heard and offer well informed and reasoned alternatives is empowering. As critical thinkers you should be suspicious of the claims of Dogma, authority, belief systems, policies and theories. The bravest thinkers are however those who question their own beliefs, preconceived ideas and biases. Our knowledge of the world, ourselves and others rest on our ability to reason which directs us to see justification for our beliefs and the beliefs of other people. Critical reasoning then is concerned with deciding what to believe. In striving to reach the goal we use careful reasoning, observation and reflection to perceive problems, examine assumptions (beliefs and ideas that are taken for granted) and evaluate biases and prejudicial attitudes. Remember however that critical reasoning does not only involve a critical attitude towards the ideas and beliefs of other people, but also towards your own beliefs and biases. A crucial part of critical reasoning then involves critical self-reflection that is the ability to reflect critically on your own assumptions and to critically evaluate your own prejudicial attitudes and biases. Critical debate is required to come to a greater understanding of societal values, believes, preconceived ideas and cultural attitudes influence your perceptions of others and yourself and fashion your understanding of the world. It is indeed challenging undertaking to examine our own assumptions and preconceived ideas. However, in my opinion the enterprise of critical self-reflection and self-discovery is liberating and rewarding and that it allows us to think for ourselves instead of being indoctrinated and manipulated by stereotypical beliefs. It is empowering to think clearly, to think for yourself, to defend your own ideas and insights based on informed reasoning and to arrive at your own independent conclusions. When you learn to think clearly you can make your voice heard.