Week 4 PDF - Child Development

lOMoARcPSD|26301137 - Mastering language structures (sound & organisaDon) Learning how language is used o Infants learn very rapidly:  Phonology – the sounds of language  Lexicon – the words of language  SemanDcs – meanings of words  PragmaDcs – purposes and ways words are used in conversaDon...

lOMoARcPSD|26301137 - Mastering language structures (sound & organisaDon) Learning how language is used o Infants learn very rapidly:  Phonology – the sounds of language  Lexicon – the words of language  SemanDcs – meanings of words  PragmaDcs – purposes and ways words are used in conversaDon  Syntax – organisaDon of words into sentences and discourse Explain Phonology: - English has 41 phonemes (sounds disDncDve to the language) Infants must be sensiDve to phonemes and ignore meaningless variaDons - Between 4 and 8 months, infants begin babbling - Consonant vowel strings in increasing complex ways - Apparently reinforced by hearing themselves vocalise - For babbling to occur, infants need to be exposed to human speech - Babies who are deaf have diTerent babbling paeerns and may babble with hand movements if exposed to sign language - Babbling enables infants to experiment with sounds and meanings of language prior to learning to speak in a convenDonal manner As cogniGve development becomes more sophisGcated, what are infants able to do? - Categorise: o Retrieve words from memory o Pronounce new words o Imitate and become aware of other’s intenDons - Fast mapping: ability to connect a word with its underlying concept amer a brief experience with the word. Are parent infant interacGons linked to intellectual and social competence? Yes WEEK 4 What is caregiver speech also referred to? What is it? - Parentese - Use of shorter sentences, simpler vocabulary, unfolds slowly, higher and variable ‘sing song’ pitch, repeDDon. What is fast mapping? Ability to connect a word with its underlying concept amer a brief experience with the word. What is SGmulus SubsGtuGon? - PresenDng two sDmuli together repeatedly results in the second sDmuli taking on the properDes of the Prst. o A mother may stroke her baby’s forehead (neutral sDmulus) each Dme she feeds it (uncondiDoned sDmulus). o Eventually when the baby’s forehead is stroked (condiDoned sDmulus), will make sucking movements and acDons (condiDoned response) What is Operant CondiGoning? Provide an example. Downloaded by Sting Ray ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|26301137 - A form of learning in which one organism act or operates on the environment through voluntary behaviour. The behaviour may then be reinforced which serves to increase the probability that the behaviour will occur again. Learning to breast feed is reinforced – strong reinforcement via the mother’s milk and being held closely. Crying posiDve reinforcement of parent’s aeenDon. Head turning reinforcement of interesDng toy or picture What is Caregiver – Infant Synchrony? - SensiDvely tuned responses to an infant’s signals which are appropriate, well Dmed and rhythmic - Matching of care giver and infant of emoDonal states • Paeer of interacDon involving close coordinaDon and teamwork - Each waits for the other to Pnish before responding o IniDally responsibility for this interacDon is with the caregiver o Amer a few months, baby is capable of iniDaDng social interchanges and inbuencing the content and style of care giver’s behaviour o During second year, parent and infant use gestures such as poinDng, vocalising and alternaDng gaze between objects and each other What is an example of Caregiver – Infant Synchrony? - Maintain and break eye contact at regular intervals - Take turns in making sounds and body movements - ‘conversaDon’ resembling adult dialogue except for the infant’s lack of words What is Co regulaGon? - Joint aeenDon, reciprocal turn taking in parent-infant interacDon - Rebects sensiDve parenDng, helps children to become socially competent in relaDonships with family and peers What is the Goodness of St model? - Describes the interacDons between infant temperament and environmental pressures - Involves creaDng child rearing environments that recognise a child’s unique temperament while encouraging posiDve adapDve behaviours o Good caregiver – infant temperament Pt and a well-developed capacity for care –giver infant synchrony both contribute to high quality caregiver – infant relaDonships Outline Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory: - Child is viewed as developing within a complex system of interrelaDonships that are aTected by diTering aspects of the surrounding environment and biological disposiDons - Microsystem: home environment of parents and siblings - Mesosystem: neighbourhood play area, child care centre - Exosystem: systems that aTect the child’s experiences in immediate seangs such as workplace environments, community health services, extended family - Macrosystem: customs, laws, cultural values of society True or False: Fathers are increasingly assuming the role of primary caregiver reversing the tradiGonal expectaGons of fathers. True. As with mothers, father’s success at maintaining high levels of caregiver – infant synchrony related to goodness of St between their what? Downloaded by Sting Ray ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|26301137 - Stress levels Personality characterisDcs Aatudes ExpectaDons CharacterisDcs of babies Needs of babies What are the four categories of fathers? - Caregivers - Playmates – teachers - Disciplinarians - Disengaged o Caregivers and playmate – teacher fathers, more educated, presDgious occupaDon, beeer adjusted emoDonally, able to rely on others, experienced fewer daily hassles True of False. Siblings may also use ‘parentese’ to communicate. True. Are there cases where infants are cared for by a sibling rather than a parent? Yes. In some cultures infants are cared for by older siblings. What is one reason conMict between siblings may occur? Conbict between siblings may occur if parents are perceived to be giving preferenDal treatment to one child What is a secure infant? When mother aeachment with each child is associated with posiDve sibling relaDonships True or False. In some cases grandparents become the primary care givers of their own child’s infant. True. Grandparents can also become secondary sources of pracDcal advice and child care What does high quality formal child care consist of? - Good physical faciliDes - Developmentally appropriate programs - Caregivers are well trained and supervised - Caregivers respond to the physical, social, cogniDve, and emoDonal needs of infants and families - NaDonal Childcare AccreditaDon council of Australia administrates and implements quality assurance systems for formal child care Why is it good for infants to have peer interacGons? - Peers support autonomy of the toddler from the mother - Peers are an alternaDve source of sDmulaDon and comfort - Through social interacDons, infants learn new behaviours, skills and abiliDes, which in turn sDmulates infant cogniDve development - Social interacDons between infants serve as the foundaDon for future social exchanges – responses are elicited from others and reacDons to these responses are generated How do young babies show interest in other infants? - Young babies show interest in other infants, similar to how they show interest in their parents: gazing, cooing and smiling. o When given the choice, infants omen prefer playing with peers than with their mothers – shown by more frequent looking, following, talking with, imitaDon and exchange of toys What is Reciprocal SocialisaGon? - Invites and elicits response Downloaded by Sting Ray ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|26301137 - Behaviours of infants invite conDnuing responses from parents and caregivers – in turn eliciDng further responses from infants What is the Mutual RegulaGon Model? - Communicate and respond - Gradually infants and parents learn to communicate emoDonal states and to interact with and respond to each other eTecDvely What does infant crying tell us? First three months – infants spend about 2 hours crying per day - Crying provides the caregiver with informaDon about discomfort (hunger, anger, pain, fussy etc) What are the four types of cries? - Basic hunger cry - Angry cry - Pain cry - Fussy irregular cry Over Dme, infants gain beeer control and crying serves to convey a wider range of messages What is temperament? The infant’s characterisDc way of feeling and responding that depicts diTerences in self-regulaDon and reacDvity What is reacGvity? Refers to variaDons among individuals in emoDonal arousal, motor acDvity and aeenDon. What is self-regulaGon? Strategies that modify and adjust reacDvity. What emoGons do infants experience? Expressions of emoDons important role in development, provides caregivers informaDon about the infant’s ongoing experiences and interacDons - Generally, the following emoDons are present at these ages: o Joy and laughter: 3- 4 months o Wariness: 3- 4 months o Anger: 4 – 7 months o Fear: 5 – 8 months Shame, embarrassment, guilt, envy and pride during toddlerhood. During the Srst year, the baby develops the ability to regulate their own expressive behaviours and associated emoGonal states (especially negaGve ones). What are some of these self-directed regulatory behaviours? - Looking away - Self-comforDng - Self-sDmulaDng Allows infants to control negaDve feelings by shiming aeenDon from a disturbing event, or by subsDtuDng negaDve sDmuli with posiDve sDmuli - These behaviours enable infant to adjust their emoDonal state to a comfortable level at which they can successfully interact with their surroundings - During second year, increases in the infant’s capacity for emoDonal self-regulaDon also rebects infant’s growing ability to respond to the feelings and needs of others through: helping, sharing and providing comfort What is Temperament? Downloaded by Sting Ray ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|26301137 - The infant’s characterisDc way of feeling and responding that depicts diTerences in selfregulaDon and reacDvity Refers to an infant’s consistent paeern or style of reacDng to a broad range of environmental events and situaDons Refers to the infant’s paeern of arousal and emoDonality DiTerences in primary reacDon tendencies such as sensiDvity to visual or verbal sDmulaDon, emoDonal responsiveness and sociability appear to be present at birth A study of temperament by Thomas & Chess (1977), looked at 9 behavioural dimensions. What were they? - AcDvity level - Rhythmicity – regularity of eaDng, sleeping, eliminaDon - Approach – withdrawal to or from novel sDmuli and situaDons - Adaptability to new people and situaDons - EmoDonal reacDvity - Responsiveness to sDmulaDon - Quality of mood (posiDve or negaDve) - DistracDbility - AeenDon span What are the three disGnct pajerns of temperament displayed by infants? Easy babies (40% of sample) - PosiDve moods, regular bodily funcDons, good adaptaDon to new situaDons Dircult babies (10% 0f sample) - NegaDve moods, irregular bodily funcDons, high stress in new situaDons Slow to warm up babies (15% of sample) - Resembled dircult babies, but less extreme, moody and relaDvely unadaptable, did not react vigorously to new sDmuli Mixed paeern babies (35% of sample) - Did not Pt neatly into any of Prst three groups, unique blended paeerns What is ajachment? - Refers to the strong and enduring emoDonal bond that develops between an infant and a caregiver during the infant’s Prst year of life. - Characterised by reciprocal aTecDon and a shared desire to maintain physical and emoDonal closeness What are the TheoreGcal foundaGons of ajachment formaGon? Ethological view - Ties between infant and caregiver develop from the acDvaDon of a biologically based moDvaDonal system, which is an inherited adapDon of human evoluDon - This system helped ensure survival of infants and therefore human race by protecDng infants from environmental dangers Working Models - Theorists emphasise the importance of working models. - Working models, or internalised percepDons, feelings and expectaDons regarding social and emoDonal relaDonships with signiPcant caregivers - Infants begin to develop mental images or representaDons of their relaDonships with their primary caregivers from two to four months PsychoanalyDc approach - Characterised by work of Freud suggests the infant’s emoDonal Des with the mother form the foundaDon of ensuing relaDonships - Contempory research extends this importance of aeachment to long term emoDonal development, based not only on early experiences but the ongoing relaDonship between the parent and the child What are signalling behaviours? Crying, cooing, babbling Downloaded by Sting Ray ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|26301137 What are approach behaviours? Smiling, clinging, non-nutriDonal sucking, following or gazing What is separaGon anxiety? Infant’s disturbance at separaDon from their caregiver What is stranger anxiety? An infant’s wariness and avoidance of strangers - Stranger anxiety is thought to be Ded to: o An infant’s increasing ability to recognise and disDnguish between familiar and unfamiliar people o An infant’s ability to acDvely make sense of their interpersonal world What are the phases of ajachment formaGon? Phase 1 (birth - 2 months) - Indiscriminate sociability Phase 2 (2 - 7 months) - Aeachments in the making Increasing preference for familiar carers Phase 3 (7 - 24 months) - SpeciPc, clear-cut aeachments SeparaDon and stranger anxiety Phase 4 (24 months +) - Goal-coordinated partnerships Assessing ajachment, Mary Ainsworth idenGSed 4 pajerns of behaviours. What were they? Secure aeachment - 65 – 70 % - When alone with mothers, played and explored happily - Stranger enters – somewhat wary o Lem alone with stranger – searched for mother, cried o Mother returns - baby acDvely sought contact o Lem alone with stranger again – comforted but showed signs of distress o Mother returns – recover from distress by seeking contact with mother - Securely aeached infants tend to: - Cooperate beeer with their parents - Comply beeer with rules - When faced with problems too dircult to solve, will accept help from parents - At age 5, tend to adapt beeer to changes in preschool situaDons Anxious Resistant (Ambivalent) - Also known as ambivalent aeachment - Insecure aeachment - Around 10% - When alone with mothers, some signs of anxiety, stayed close with mother, minimal exploraDon o Lem alone with stranger – Intensely upset o Mother returns - baby acDvely sought contact, but also angrily resisted mother’s aeempts to comfort them by hiang them and pushing them away o Refusal to be comforted by stranger - Anxious – resistant infants omen respond with anger to parent’s aeempts to help or teach them - May invest so much Dme and entry in conbicts, they are unable to benePt from parent’s experience or explore their environments Anxious Avoidant - About 20 % - Insecure aeachment - IniDally showed liele involvement with mothers o Treated mother and stranger in much the same way o Rarely cried when separated Downloaded by Sting Ray ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|26301137 o When reunited with mother, showed a mixed response of low level engagement and tendency to avoid - Tendency to avoid interacDon with parents, miss out parental eTorts to teach or help them, may discourage parents from trying to help Disorganised – Disorientated - Fourth paeern later invesDgated, indicates greatest degree of insecurity - When reunited with parent – infant exhibited confused and contradictory behaviours - May be unresponsive and turn away when held, display frozen postures, and cry out unexpectedly when comforted - Generally found in seriously disturbed caregiver situaDons - InteracDons between mothers and infants are inconsistent and out of tune with, or inappropriately responsive to the infant’s physical, social or emoDonal needs - Parents may display role reversal – unrealisDcally expecDng to be cared for by their infant - May respond to infant in an overly intrusive, withdrawing or rejecDng ways - The infant’s aeempts to communicate or modify this behaviour are ignored or overridden - Increases with the severity of family risk factors, places infants risk for future problems, such as aggression, conduct disorder and other developmental dirculDes How can pajerns of ajachment vary across and within cultures Cultural values? - Personal independence - ExpectaDons of compliance - Child-rearing pracDces - Restricted contact with others - Sleeping arrangements How does the role of the mother inMuence ajachment formaGon? - Major determinant of aeachment is the quality of the infant – mother relaDonship during the Prst year - Mothers of securely aeached infants are more responsive to their babies’ crying, more careful and tender in holding them, more responsive to their needs and feelings during both feeding and non-feeding interacDons - DiTerences in infant temperament are likely to aTect the relaDonship and quality of aeachment What inMuences the mother-child relaGonship? - Mother’s own style of aeachment - The mother’s working models – her percepDons, expectaDons and assumpDons about herself, her infant and their relaDonship - Past mother – infant interacDons - Mother’s memories of her own childhood - Mother’s socioeconomic status – aTects her ability to focus on her infant rather than on Pnding housing, food, work and other necessiDes True or False. Ebects of maternal employment on the infant are rarely direct. True. - Based on a variety of family factors: SES, cultural diTerences, mother’s morale, father’s aatude to maternal employment, type of work and number of hours, relaDonship between partners, the father’s role in the family, availability of child care, mother’s and father’s feelings of separaDon from the child. - Most infants with mothers who work full or part Dme are securely aeached - However, FT mothers are more likely to have infants who are insecurely aeached than part Dme or unemployed mothers True or False. An infant with an insecure ajachment with family, may form secure ajachments with other caregivers. True. Downloaded by Sting Ray ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|26301137 - Infants and non-maternal care givers are able to establish unique and independent relaDonships based on reciprocal exchanges and individual qualiDes. Evidence in contexts of extended families, community child rearing seangs, secure aeachment with mulDple professional and non-professional caregivers may contribute to the child’s wellbeing. Are ajachment pajerns in infancy, predicGve of ajachment in childhood, adolescence and adulthood? Yes. Are ajachment pajerns parents experience in their own childhood, related to ajachment relaGonships developed with own children? Yes. - Adult Aeachment interview evaluates childhood aeachment relaDonships adults had with own caregivers: o Autonomous (secure)  Related to secure aeachment  Generally thoughgul, value aeachment experiences and relaDonships  Provide non contradictory descripDons of both parents as loving during childhood  If experienced abuse, as a child have forgiven parents o Dismissing (insecure)  Related to Anxious – Avoidant aeachment  Tend to deny inbuence of aeachment experiences on own development, or on relaDonship with own children  Cannot remember childhood experiences, or recalls them in contradictory or overly idealised ways o Preoccupied (insecure)  Related to Anxious Resistant aeachment  Omen sDll emoDonally entangled in early experiences and relaDonships with families  Dirculty explaining them in a clear and understandable way o Unresolved –Disorganised)  Related to Disorganised – Disorientated aeachment What forms the Srst building block of the infant's social and emoGonal development? Trust. - Erikson – Trust vs.. Mistrust - Trust o Infants who have received surcient infant – caregiver synchrony and achieved relaDvely secure aeachment with parents and caregivers have developed a basic sense of trust o Due to warm, responsive care, infants develop a sense of conPdence and trust about the world o By resolving this crisis, an infant’s trusDng view of the world leads to the development of hope – the enduring belief that one’s wishes are aeainable - Mistrust o Mistrust occurs when infants are handled harshly and have to wait too long for care, comfort and their basic needs to be met o Mistrust leads to fear, distress, apathy Mistrust leads to fear, distress, apathy Discuss Erikson’s Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt. DeSne: - Autonomy o Refers to a child’s capacity to be independent and self-directed in their acDviDes. Downloaded by Sting Ray ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|26301137 o Ability to balance their own demands for self-control with demands for control form their parents and others. - Shame o - Involves both a loss of approval by people important to the child and a loss of selfrespect due to a failure to meet one’s own standards Toddlers must make choices – an essenDal feature of autonomy – in a way that does not cause serious harm to themselves or others New sense of independence, toddlers assert themselves, and as a result frequently come into conbict – may frequently say ‘no’, or refuse to eat their dinner at meal Dme This omen leaves them with a sense of shame with respect to other people, and doubt about their own abiliDes to control their world and themselves Healthy autonomy is established if the toddler encounters a reasonable balance between freedom and control Too much autonomy, as well as too liele can be harmful Parents should learn to support the toddler’s autonomy, without overesDmaDng or underesDmaDng the toddler’s capabiliDes, or the dangers and fears they face If parents are unable to provide support for autonomy, and instead show their disapproval of failures by shaming the toddler, a paeern of self-blame and doubt may develop Toddler may be painfully shy and unsure of themselves, or overly demanding, self-criDcal, and relaDvely unable to undertake new acDviDes and experiences freely Sources of Autonomy: How do infants and toddlers begin to develop autonomy? - IdenDPcaDon o The process through which children wish to become like their parents o Intensity of the young child’s emoDonal dependence on parents creates an intense desire to be like them, please them and guarantee their love o This dependence also creates anger due to fear of helplessness and fear of abandonment - Operant CondiDoning o Importance of reinforcement for desirable behaviours  Adults will tend to reinforce a child for more grown up behaviours such as independent exploraDon and self-restraint o Focuses on the child acquiring individual speciPc behaviours, rather than whole personality traits - ObservaDonal Learning o The child’s inherent tendency to observe and imitate parents and caregivers leads to the acquisiDon of autonomy e.g. taking pots and pans from cupboard - Social Referencing o All three explanaDons for development of autonomy involve social referencing o The child’s sensiDvity to feelings of their parents and other adults, and the ability to use these emoDonal cues to guide their own emoDonal responses and acDons in an uncertain situaDon o E.g. – visiDng a strange place, an infant will use social referencing to evaluate the parent’s responses such as relaxed and happy, the toddler will most likely also feel that way A socially competent toddler is likely to display what capabiliGes? - Geang and holding adult aeenDon - Using adults as resources for dircult tasks - Expressing aTecDon and mild annoyance to adults - Leading and following peers - Expressing aTecDon and mild annoyance to peers - CompeDng with peers - Showing pride in accomplishments - Engaging in role play or make believe acDviDes What is Self Esteem? A child’s feeling that they are an important, competent, powerful and worthwhile person, whose eTorts to be autonomous and take iniDaDve are respected and valued around them. Downloaded by Sting Ray ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|26301137 - The development of self-esteem during infancy and toddlerhood is closely Ded to the achievement of a posiDve raDo of autonomy versus shame and doubt, and iniDaDve versus guilt during the developmental crises that according to Erikson occur during childhood. What is the Srst primary means of communicaGon? - Cooing – Vowel sounds - Babbling – Between 4 and 8 months What is Caregiver-infant synchrony? SensiDvely tuned responses to an infant’s signals, which are appropriate, well Dmed and rhythmic (p.164). What is Temperament? Refers to an individual’s consistent paeern or style of reacDng to a broad range of environmental events and situaDons as well as their paeern or arousal and emoDonality (p.173). What is Ajachment? Refers to the strong and enduring emoDonal bond that develops between an infant and a caregiver during the infant’s Prst year of life (p. 176). What is Secure Ajachment? A healthy bond between infant and caregiver. The child is happy when the caregiver is present, somewhat upset during the caregiver’s absence, and easily comforted upon the caregiver’s return (p.179) What is SeparaGon anxiety? Which generally appears between 9 and 12 months, involves displays of fear, clinging, crying and related distress when an infant’s parent or other caregiver leaves them (p.178). What is social referencing? The child’s sensiDve awareness of how parents and other adults are feeling and their ability to use these emoDonal cues as a basis for guiding their own emoDonal responses and acDons. Social referencing is important for the development of autonomy (p.700). WEEK 5 Is growth is early childhood Cephalocaudal or Proximodistal? - Growth is cephalocaudal: proporDons change - Limbs lengthen - ProporDon of body fat decreases - Brain develops - Skeleto-muscular system strengthens - Permanent teeth emerge What impact does size variaGon have on individuals in early childhood? Larger than average children may - Be excluded for “roughness” - Lack challenges - Have more expected of them Smaller than average children may - Be injured by larger children - Lack mastery in normaDve tasks of strength and endurance - Be “babied” low self-conPdence What factors determine the development of motor skills? - Physical changes o ProporDons (lowering of COG) Downloaded by Sting Ray ([email protected])