Human Factors in Civil and Transport Engineering Week 3 Lecture - Part 1 PDF

CVEN4405 Human Factors in Civil and Transport Engineering Week 3 Lecture – Part 1 Social psychology of road safety Dr Milad Haghani School of Civil and Environmental Engineering Economic aspects of road safety Cognitive aspects of road safety Mathematical modelling of road safety Clinical and...

CVEN4405 Human Factors in Civil and Transport Engineering Week 3 Lecture – Part 1 Social psychology of road safety Dr Milad Haghani School of Civil and Environmental Engineering Economic aspects of road safety Cognitive aspects of road safety Mathematical modelling of road safety Clinical and epidemiological aspects of road safety Neuro-cognitive aspects of road safety Social science of road safety Social psychological aspects of road safety Philosophical aspects of road safety Micro-mobility aspects of road safety • • • • • • Social psychology of road safety Driver personality Scales, inventories and self-report instruments Driving anger and aggressive driving Driver behaviour and skills Driver style Driver Stress Inventory Drivers’ personality • The Big Five personality traits • Personality trait refers to a consistent and stable pattern of feelings, thoughts and behaviours that an individual holds (McCrae and Costa, 2003) Drivers’ personality Clarke, S. and T Robertson, I., 2005. A meta‐analytic review of the Big Five personality factors and accident involvement in occupational and non‐occupational settings. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 78(3), pp.355-376. The link between personality traits and accident involement – Low conscientiousness and low agreeableness were found to be predictors of accident involvement with correlated mean validities of .26 and .27 respectively – Extraversion was found to be a valid predictor of traffic accidents, but not occupational accidents Drivers’ personality The link between extraversion and accident involement Extraversion = Marked by pronounced engagement with the external world. Extraverts enjoy interacting with people, and are often perceived as full of energy. They tend to be enthusiastic, action-oriented individuals. They possess high group visibility, like to talk, and assert themselves. – Some studies suggested that people who are more extraverted are more likely to violate traffic regulations (Lev et al. 2008) – High scores on extraversion are also associated with motor vehicle accidents and traffic mortalities (Fine, 1963; Lajunen, 2001; Martin and Boomsma, 1989; Renner and Anderle, 2000; Smith and Kirkham, 1981) – A positive correlation between extraversion and risky driving has been documented in a number of previous studies (Lev et al., 2008) – The relationships between extraversion and accident involvement have been mixed (Tao et al. 2017; Wilson and Greensmith,1983) Drivers’ personality The link between extraversion and accident involement Neuroticism = The tendency to experience negative emotions, such as anger, anxiety, or depression. It is sometimes called emotional instability, or is reversed and referred to as emotional stability. – A number of studies have demonstrated that neuroticism is positively correlated with risky driving (Bone and Mowen, 2006;Booth-Kewley and Vickers, 1994; Dahlen and White, 2006) – A number of studies have demonstrated that neuroticism is positively correlated with accident involvement and traffic mortality (Kirkcaldy and Furnham,2000) Drivers’ personality The link between personality traits and accident involement • Each of the 5 personality dimensions were predictors of accident involvement, but the effects were small (r < .1) • Personality, in terms of single occasion self-reported questionnaire responses, have little predictive value for traffic accident involvement. The correlation between Neuroticism and accidents Drivers’ personality The link between personality traits and risky driving behaviour – While showing no direct effects on accident risk, personality traits had direct effects on risky driving behaviour, and yielded indirect effects on accident risk mediated by risky driving behaviors – It was assumed that both personality traits and driving experience would predict self-reported accident risk directly and indirectly through the mediating effects of risky driving behaviours The proposed mediated personality-driving behaviors-accident association model. Drivers’ personality The link between personality traits and risky driving behaviour The final model and significant standardized path coefficients Drivers’ personality Practical applications of research on this topic – A screening procedure can be applied by assessing personality traits in the selection of professional drivers. – Could also be helpful in the education and training of both novice and experienced drivers. – Increase their self-awareness on how their personality traits could have potential effects on the consequences of their behaviors in driving. • • • • • • Social psychology of road safety Driver personality Scales, inventories and self-report instruments Driving anger and aggressive driving Driver behaviour and skills Driver style Driver Stress Inventory Drivers’ personality • In recent decades, the number of social psychological studies in traffic research has increased drastically. The popularity of self-reports has also increased • Because social psychological studies are mostly based on self-reports, increased interest in social psychological factors has also resulted in the increased use of self-report methodology. Self-reports include a great variety of different • Questionnaires • Inventories • Interviews • Focus groups • Driving diaries Drivers’ personality • Common features in all these diverse self-report measures are that participants are aware that they are participating in a study; they are asked to actively reply to more or less structured questions; and their responses are taken as “face valid”. Self-reports and especially questionnaires have many advantages. • They are usually less expensive than studies using an instrumented vehicle or a simulator. • They provide more detailed information than observations. • They can reach large numbers of people. • • • • • • Social psychology of road safety Driver personality Scales, inventories and self-report instruments Driving anger and aggressive driving Driver behaviour and skills Driver style Driver Stress Inventory Aggressive driving • The American Psychologists Association defines Anger as “an emotion characterised by tension and hostility arising from frustration, real or imagined injury by another, or perceived injustice” • Aggression can be defined as “behavior aimed at harming others physically or psychologically” • Aggressive driving includes any behavior by a motorist intended to physically, emotionally, or psychologically harm another road user in the roadway environment. • The American Automobile Association (AAA, 2014) defines Aggressive Driving as: “Any unsafe driving behavior, performed deliberately and with ill intention or disregard for safety” • The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) define Aggressive Driving as “the operation of a motor vehicle that endangers or is likely to endanger persons or property” Such behavior occurs worldwide and increases the likelihood and severity of motor vehicle collisions. • Terminologies: aggressive driving, risky driving, road rage, retaliatory aggression, hostile aggression, dangerous driving, instrumental aggression (the importance of differentiation between these terms). All aggressive driving can be considered risky driving, but not all risky driving can be considered aggressive. Similarly… All acts of road rage can be considered aggressive driving, but not all acts of aggressive driving can be considered road rage. A quick recap Aggressive driving = Any type of behaviour directed to hurt another person (other drivers or pedestrians) at a physical or emotional level, without taking into consideration those persons’ rights or safety (Dula & Geller, 2003; Bogdan et al 2016) – – – – – – – – – – – – – – Flashing lights Speeding Dangerous overtaking Running stops or red lights Weaving in and out of traffic Honking Preventing drivers from merging or passing Verbal threats Non-verbal gestures Tailgating Blocking other drivers Unsafe lane changing or speeding Car ramming Physical attacks Prevalence of aggressive driving Types of aggressive driving and general prevalence. Source: NB Prevalence taken from AAA Foundation for Traffic Safety (2016), Stephens and Fitzharris (2019). The General Aggression model Aggression relies on the emotional response a driver has to a situation (routes). This response will differ according to who the driver is and the circumstances of the situation (inputs). The resulting behavior (outcomes) will also depend upon the emotion-based appraisals made by the driver, who will evaluate what response is appropriate and the risk involved. An additional element of the GAM is that aggression provides a feedback loop, whereby successful outcomes, for example speeding past a slower driver, are likely to reinforce future aggressive behaviors. Representation of the General Aggression Model (Anderson and Bushman, 2002) for aggressive driving. Behavioural campaigns & media coverage https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Eb6v8GIRXHg https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FIO7C0PFrGU https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5Z_EdAA3838 Aggressive driving • The concept of driving anger originated in a clinical setting, where psychologists attempted to understand and treating problem anger in a driving context. • Jerry Deffenbacher et al. (1994) defined driving anger as a situation specific form of trait anger. Aggressive driving Driving Anger Scale (DAS) A scale intended to measure anger in regard to driving (Deffenbacher, Oetting, & Lynch, 1994) – Most used scale for measuring driving anger – Drivers high in trait driving anger tend to experience anger more often and more intensely when driving than those low in trait driving anger – DAS has helped us further understand the types of drivers likely to become angry while driving and the situations most likely to trigger anger. – DAS has also been used as a part of therapy, as decreases in DAS scores post anger treatment can indicate successful anger management strategies (Deffenbacher, 2009; Deffenbacher, 2013). Driving Anger scale Driving Anger Scale (DAS) 33 items to measure six dimensions of driving anger 1. Discourtesy (9 items) 2. Traffic obstructions (7 items) 3. Hostile gestures (3 items) 4. Slow driving (6 items) 5. Police presence (4 items) 6. Illegal driving (4 items) Driving Anger scale Sârbescu, P., 2016. Driving Anger Scale: How reliable are subscale scores? A bifactor model analysis. Transportation research part F: traffic psychology and behaviour, 42, pp. 248-254 Driving Anger scale Short-form DAS: 14 items Driving Anger scale Gender differences in the trait driving anger Deffenbacher, J.L., Stephens, A.N. and Sullman, M.J.M., 2016. Driving anger as a psychological construct: twenty years of research using the Driving Anger Scale. Transportation research part F: traffic psychology and behaviour, 42, pp. 236-247 Validity of Driving Anger Scale Drivers who score high on DAS – Anger prone drivers become more angry more often when driving In diary studies, high anger drivers averaged nearly 2.5 anger incidents per day, whereas low anger drivers averaged less than one incident per day – Anger is more intense for high trait anger drivers Diary studies also revealed significantly more intense anger while driving (Ms = 58 vs. 27 on 100-point intensity scale) – The anger of high anger drivers tends to be elicited by a wider range of situations These drivers reported that 3–3.5 times more situations elicited significant anger than low anger drivers Validity of Driving Anger Scale Drivers who score high on DAS – Anger prone drivers evaluate the driving situation in a more hostile way – Anger prone drivers experience more crash-related conditions High anger drivers were 2.5 times more likely to hit or damage their vehicle in anger. In high impedance simulations, high anger drivers crashed twice as often as low anger drivers – Anger prone drivers are more aggressive High anger drivers engaged in approximately two aggressive behaviour a day, whereas low anger drivers averaged about half an aggressive behaviour a day Validity of Driving Anger Scale Summary Compared to low anger drivers, high anger drivers: – report more triggers for their anger while driving – report more frequent and intense anger – think in more hostile, aggression-oriented ways – express their anger in less adaptive/constructive and more aggressive ways – experience more adverse consequences stemming from their anger and aggression – engage in more risky behaviour when driving – experience more of some crash-related conditions Driving Anger Expression Inventory (DAX) DAX = A measure of how people express their anger on the road (Deffenbacher, Lynch, Oetting, & Swaim, 2002) Identifies four factors in the expression of driver anger: 1. Verbal aggressive expression (VA): e.g., yelling 2. Personal physical aggressive expression (PA), e.g., fighting 3. Use of the vehicle to express anger (UOV), e.g., flashing lights, honking 4. Adaptive/constructive expression (AC):, e.g., focusing on traffic flow (only positive factor in DAX) Aggressive forms of expression correlated positively with each other (rs=0.39–0.48), but were uncorrelated or correlated negatively with adaptive/constructive expression Driving Anger Expression Inventory (DAX) – The antecedent of anger expression, driving anger, is defined as the propensity to become angry behind the wheel. – Previous research suggests that individuals are not more likely to get angry while driving, but are more likely to express their anger in the driving context than in other situations (Lawton & Nutter, 2002) – It is also been found that by age, PA and UOV decrease and AC increases (Deffenbacher, Kemper, & Richards, 2007) – Females report higher frequency of AC expression than males, and males report using more PA expression than females (Deffenbacher, Richards, & Lynch, 2004; Esiyok, Yasak, & Korkusuz, 2007) – Two recent meta-analyses reviewed the anger–aggression relationships (Bogdan et al., 2016; Zhang and Chan, 2016). Bogdan et al. (2016) compared 51 studies using self-reported anger tendencies with aggressive expressions of anger. Several of the included studies measured aggression using the DAX. They found that the strongest relationships were between trait anger and verbal expressions of anger, which they argued may be due to the ease of this form of communication Driving Anger Expression Inventory (DAX) Funnel plot of anger–aggression correlation Meta-regression analysis on the effect of age on the anger-risky driving correlation. In transportation literature, it has been theorized that aberrant driving includes at least three types of road behaviors (i.e., aggressive driving, risky driving, and driving errors) that may threaten road safety. Driving Anger Expression Inventory (DAX) Practical applications of research in this area – The goal now is to understand why and in what driving circumstances some drivers will become angered – What strategies need to be implemented to avoid the potentially dangerous consequences of the driving anger – Research in this field needs to focus on understanding and measuring driving anger for the modern driver and working to reduce triggers for anger, intensity of anger experiences and aggressive and dangerous expressions of this anger Driving Anger and Aggression Interventions for reduction of driving anger • Cognitive interventions • Relaxation interventions • Behavioral interventions • Combined interventions Anger and Aggression in (Semi)-Automated driving • While the role of anger in aggressive driving is now well established, it is less clear how emotions will influence driver operation in autonomous driving. This will be particularly relevant in the lower stages of automation, where drivers will still be required to takeover the driving task. We do not know whether AV will be the solution for anger and aggression, or a tool that exacerbates this. • In particular, drivers report that auditory warnings that have a family member’s voice would assist in reducing aggressive responses. However, studies of mood during AV driving have shown that a driver’s mood can deteriorate during complex driving (Techer et al., 2019). An updated scale of driving anger • • • • • • Social psychology of road safety Driver personality Scales, inventories and self-report instruments Driving anger and aggressive driving Driver behaviour and skills Driver style Driver Stress Inventory Driver behaviour and skills • Driving can be seen as being composed of two separate components, driving skills and driving style (Elander, West, & French, 1993), or, in other words, driver performance and driver behavior. • Driving skills include those information-processing and motor skills that improve with training and experience (In addition to learning, driving-related skills can be considered to be affected by a driver’s general information-processing ability.) • Driving style/behaviour concerns individual driving habits that is, the way a driver chooses to drive. Driving style becomes established over a period of years but does not necessarily get safer with driving experience. • Driving style/behaviour is a subjective feature, while driving skill is considered more objective and can therefore be observed and assessed externally and/or technically. • Practice and increased exposure to the diversity of traffic situations result in improved skills but also increased subjective control of driving, less concern for safety, and habitually driving with narrow safety margins. Driver behaviour and skills Measuring Driver Behavior and Performance with Self-Reports • Driver Behaviour Questionnaire (DBQ) • Driver Skill Inventory (DSI) Although in the literature self-reports have been used for measuring both driving skills (performance) and driving style (driver behavior), we believe that self-report methodology fits better to studies of driver behavior than performance for several reasons. Driver behavior refers to driving style that is, the everyday way of driving that the driver prefers. Drivers’ awareness of their driving skills can be assumed to be much lower because basic motor and perceptual processes are automatic and do not need attention. Exposure as learning means that experienced drivers are probably even less aware of their skills than are novices because controlling the vehicle requires conscious attention only in especially demanding situations. Driver Behavior Questionnaire Driver Style Inventory The Multidimensional Driving Style Inventory Participants were asked to read each item and to rate the extent to which it fits their feelings, thoughts, and behavior during driving on a 6-point scale, ranging from “not at all” (1) to “very much” (6) (1) (2) (3) (4) reckless and careless; anxious; angry and hostile; and patient and careful The multidimensional driving style inventory • • • • • • Social psychology of road safety Driver personality Scales, inventories and self-report instruments Driving anger and aggressive driving Driver behaviour and skills Driver style Driver Stress Inventory Driver stress • Driving stress refers to a set of responses associated with the perception and evaluation of driving as demanding or dangerous relative to the individual’s driving capabilities. • According to the model, environmental stressors are appraised and may elicit maladaptive cognitions and stress responses that tax the person’s ability to cope. These cognitive stress processes support two forms of outcome: subjective responses such as anxiety, anger and tiredness, and performance outcomes such as impairment of psychomotor control and changes in speed. • The impact of these stressors is moderated by personality factors and further influence how external stimuli are appraised • The ongoing selection of coping strategies may be effective or ineffective for driver safety Driver stress • Several factors may induce driver stress. Driver stress mainly occurs when a driver is unable to manage driving-related dangers, which may induce a dislike of driving and impaired hazard monitoring. • Other driving behavior can also induce driver stress. For example, being stuck behind a slow vehicle on a winding country road in bad weather may be frustrating and may elicit anxiety about how to safely overtake the vehicle. Driver Stress Inventory (DSI) DSI measures five distinct dimensions of stress vulnerability (Matthews et al., 1997): • Driving aggression (AGG): characterized by negative appraisals of other drivers that tend to generate feelings of anger and dangerous driving behaviors. • Dislike of driving (DIS): associated with negative self-appraisal and generates negative mood states and worries which tend to interfere with task performance. • Hazard monitoring (HM): reflects the active monitoring for hazards to preempt threat by the vigilant search for danger. • Thrill-seeking (TS): defined by enjoyment of danger and increased risk taking. • Fatigue proneness (FP): associated with errors and lapses and predictive of loss of task engagement reflected in a lack of willingness to engage in effortful, task-focused coping. The participants indicate how strongly they agreed with each item on an 11-point Likert scale that ranged from 0 (“not at all”) to 10 (“very much”). • • • • • • Social psychology of road safety Driver personality Scales, inventories and self-report instruments Driving anger and aggressive driving Driver behaviour and skills Driver style Driver Stress Inventory Main references • Bogdan, S. R., Măirean, C., & Havârneanu, C.-E. (2016). A meta-analysis of the association between anger and aggressive driving. Transportation research part F: traffic psychology and behaviour, 42, 350-364. • Deffenbacher, J., Stephens, A., & Sullman, M. J. (2016). Driving anger as a psychological construct: Twenty years of research using the Driving Anger Scale. Transportation research part F: traffic psychology and behaviour, 42, 236-247. • Deffenbacher, J. L. (2016). A review of interventions for the reduction of driving anger. Transportation research part F: traffic psychology and behaviour, 42, 411-421. • Deffenbacher, J. L., Deffenbacher, D. M., Lynch, R. S., & Richards, T. L. (2003). Anger, aggression, and risky behavior: a comparison of high and low anger drivers. Behaviour research and therapy, 41(6), 701-718. • Deffenbacher, J. L., Lynch, R. S., Oetting, E. R., & Swaim, R. C. (2002). The Driving Anger Expression Inventory: A measure of how people express their anger on the road. Behaviour research and therapy, 40(6), 717-737. • Deffenbacher, J. L., Oetting, E. R., & Lynch, R. S. (1994). Development of a driving anger scale. Psychological reports, 74(1), 83-91. • Deffenbacher, J. L., Petrilli, R. T., Lynch, R. S., Oetting, E. R., & Swaim, R. C. (2003). The Driver's Angry Thoughts Questionnaire: A measure of angry cognitions when driving. Cognitive therapy and research, 27(4), 383-402. Main references • Dorn, L. (2021). Driver Stress and Driving Performance. In R. Vickerman (Ed.), International Encyclopedia of Transportation (pp. 203-223). Oxford: Elsevier. • Lajunen, T., & Özkan, T. (2011). Chapter 4 - Self-Report Instruments and Methods. In B. E. Porter (Ed.), Handbook of Traffic Psychology (pp. 43-59). San Diego: Academic Press. • Lajunen, T., & Özkan, T. (2021). Driving Behavior and Skills. In R. Vickerman (Ed.), International Encyclopedia of Transportation (pp. 59-64). Oxford: Elsevier. • Qu, W., Zhang, Q., Zhao, W., Zhang, K., & Ge, Y. (2016). Validation of the Driver Stress Inventory in China: Relationship with dangerous driving behaviors. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 87, 50-58. • Roseborough, J. E. W., Wickens, C. M., & Wiesenthal, D. L. (2021). Aggressive Driving and Road Rage. In R. Vickerman (Ed.), International Encyclopedia of Transportation (pp. 17-24). Oxford: Elsevier. • Sârbescu, P. (2016). Driving anger scale: How reliable are subscale scores? A bifactor model analysis. Transportation research part F: traffic psychology and behaviour, 42, 248-254. • Stephens, A., Lennon, A., Bihler, C., & Trawley, S. (2019). The measure for angry drivers (MAD). Transportation research part F: traffic psychology and behaviour, 64, 472-484. • Sullman, M. J. M., & Stephens, A. N. (2021). Driver Aggression and Anger. In R. Vickerman (Ed.), International Encyclopedia of Transportation (pp. 121-129). Oxford: Elsevier. • Taubman-Ben-Ari, O., Mikulincer, M., & Gillath, O. (2004). The multidimensional driving style inventory—scale construct and validation. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 36(3), 323-332. • Taubman-Ben-Ari, O., & Skvirsky, V. (2016). The multidimensional driving style inventory a decade later: Review of the literature and re-evaluation of the scale. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 93, 179-188. • Taubman – Ben-Ari, O. (2021). The Multidimensional Driving Style Inventory. In R. Vickerman (Ed.), International Encyclopedia of Transportation (pp. 65-73). Oxford: Elsevier. • Zhang, T., & Chan, A. H. (2016). The association between driving anger and driving outcomes: A meta-analysis of evidence from the past twenty years. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 90, 50-62.