Week 2 FP Theories of Crime PDF

CPS2822: Theories of Crime Week 2 Dr.Dr. Kalliopi Eleni Megari Vazakidou Academic Director PG Clinical Psychology Psychology Depart...

CPS2822: Theories of Crime Week 2 Dr.Dr. Kalliopi Eleni Megari Vazakidou Academic Director PG Clinical Psychology Psychology Department 1 Outline Theories of crime (chapter 5)- single factor Chapter 6-Juvenile offenders and beyond ▪ Risk and protective factors theories ▪ Social interventions to reduce delinquency ▪ Neuropsychology ▪ Psychoanalysis ▪ Attachment ▪ Addiction to crime ▪ Eysenck’s Biosocial Theory ▪ Social Learning theory ▪ Strain theories ▪ Social construction Levels of theoretical analysis  Theories of Crime - single factor theories CITY College, Psychology Department Neuropsychology The case of Phineas Gage https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZKaDWu2zFG0 Neuropsychology concerns the brain’s structure and activity/function in relation to psychological processes Can neuropsychology explain criminal behavior? Whether there is a difference between criminals and non criminals in terms of their brain structure and function – Biological explanations are not popular among forensic psychologists as there is a vast amount of evidence indicating the social and psychological causes of crime – there has been a steady stream of research into physiological, anatomical, genetic and similar abnormalities in criminal subgroups such as rapists, child molesters, etc (e.g. comparing offenders with non-offenders) – But even when differences are detected, it is not clear whether such differences lead to/cause criminal behaviour Neuropsychology Traumatic Brain Injury affects important brain regions which are involved in acceptable social behavior (e.g. self-regulation, planning, inhibition, and identifying emotion from another person’s face and tone of voice) But cautious about the link between these brain pathologies and crime. ▪ Pre-traumatic brain differences already present in the brain may be responsible for the brain being on a divergent criminal track ▪ Methodological difficulties in this sort of research: o Violent people are likely to get into fights and consequently suffer brain damage. So their violence causes the brain damage rather than vice versa. o Some of the samples used may be non-representative (e.g. may suffer from other disadvantages, prison conditions etc.) Neuropsychology - Evaluation Pros Cons Knowledge of a neuropsychological cause of Long way from fully understanding any biological criminality would contribute to better-targeted basis to criminality including neuropsychological treatments. Medical treatments rather than explanations, let alone the mechanism by which psychological therapy might be considered for this possible influence might operate. appropriate cases. Unfortunately, it is very difficult to establish such a relationship for individual cases except where changes have followed accidents, For most forensic and criminal psychologists, etc. whatever the biological basis of crime, biological approaches do not deal with the immediate task of helping treat criminals through therapy or with The evidence to date suggests that biological the problems of making assessments about factors have some influence on criminality individuals and their future behaviors. although they are probably restricted to a small proportion of cases. This possibly applies to the notion of the genetic transmission of criminality too – though evidence on this is also almost always interpretable in terms of environmental influences. Psychoanalysis Freudian psychoanalysis has little to say directly about crime “Criminality from a sense of guilt” (Freud, 1916) – People suffer oppressive feelings of guilt which they did not understand the origins of; They commit crimes because they were forbidden and committing them produced mental relief from the feelings of guilt – guilt plays a paradoxical role in crime by preceding the crime not following it – Similarly, crime is not due to the weakness of the superego but the consequence of its overpowering strength (Kline, 1927; 1934) Attachment theory by Bowlby – Human predisposition to form attachment to others. The primary care-givers – usually the parents – are a sort of bedrock for future relationships – Attachment disruptions (particularly absence of the main care giver)=developmental problems, which can include offending – “Forty-four juvenile thieves” (1944) demonstrated that maternal separation was the ‘cause’ of delinquency – There is an association between delinquency/crime and parental attachment-Risk factor Psychoanalysis - Evaluation Pros Cons Some of the notions, especially those of Few modern psychologists make direct attachment, have been highly influential in use of Freudian concepts; concepts fail directing researchers’ attention towards the to gain the support of researchers. impact of early life experiences, especially Psychoanalytic therapies are extremely- parenting, on later delinquency and criminality time consuming and apparently and gained empirical support. ineffective. Addiction to Crime Is crime an addiction? – Criminal behavior can persist in some individuals despite its serious negative consequences – Therefore, crime can have similarities to behaviours, classified as addiction Few addiction experts propose a purely biological model of addiction; numerous socio-psychological explanations of aspects of addiction – Addiction is seen as a product of the interaction of personal and environmental factors, of which stereotypical biological addiction is merely a part. Reasons for considering some crime as an addiction: – Frequent co-occurrence criminal activity and substance use/abuse Risk factors of addiction are much the same as those for criminality (e.g. school problems, delinquent peers) – Persistence and escalation despite the well-known tendency for criminal activity to decline with age, this is not so for all offenders. For a minority, antisocial behaviour appears more like a lifelong career – The process of change successful treatments are much the same for a variety of crimes and a variety of addictions. They tend to adopt a cognitive behavioural model. Furthermore, the processes of change in therapy are not dissimilar for substance abuse and crime – Common characteristics (e.g., tolerance, withdrawal, craving, relapse) Addiction to Crime Common characteristics (e.g., tolerance, withdrawal, craving, relapse) The evidence supporting the idea that crime is an addiction lies largely in studies drawing parallels between crime and addiction. These are only a few studies though. – McGuire (1997) describes three case studies that he examined for the components of ‘addiction’. He found evidence for the following characteristics of addiction in shoplifting… Addiction to Crime - Evaluation Pros Cons It could explain the continued involvement in Without a good deal of research, it is difficult criminality of those who are otherwise to know whether the concept of addiction to regularly punished for it. crime explains anything that cannot be explained using other theories. Criminals tend to be involved in a wide variety Critical tests of the theory have not been of crimes and relatively few are total forthcoming. specialists. Addiction to crime can be applied What is the unique contribution? widely to the offending patterns of criminals. ▪ the theory may merely describe features of some deviant behaviour without explaining why the individual is deviant in the first place  Eysenck’s Biosocial Addiction to Crime Theory Eysenck(1996) suggested that it is wrong to ask why people break the law since it is perfectly rational to take whatever one wants since that is in the individual’s personal self-interest Instead ask ‘Why do we behave in a socially desirable fashion?’ (p. 148) – We learn not to be criminal (his answer) This is a biosocial theory given that he believed that genetic factors contributed enormously to human behavior but that they have their effects are under the influence of environmental or social factors Genetic variations substantially influence the psychological differences between people that lead to different propensities to crime (and other sorts of behaviour). Not universally accepted Eysenck’s Biosocial Theory Genetics XYY chromosome hypothesis – women have two X chromosomes - men have an X and a Y chromosome – Occasionally, men are born with two Y chromosomes – that is, XYY rather than XY – speculatively, one might suggest that the XYY male is extra-masculine. Masculinity is associated with aggression, so the XYY male might be more aggressive – Offenders in places such as prison or hospital may well include a big proportion of XYY men Some research found that they were rare in the general male population but more common in men involved in crime The difficulty for the XYY theory was that these men were not particularly involved in violent crime, but only in non-violent crime After more than fifty years of research on XYY men, clear evidence of a genetic link between the extra chromosome and violent crime has not been forthcoming  Eysenck’s Biosocial Theory Constitutional factors Eysenck, again provocatively, argued that there are physical differences between criminals and non-criminals and he was interested in Sheldon’s theory. Sheldon’s (1949) research suggested that compared with college students, criminals tended to have the mesomorphic body type: – Mesomorphs: people with a preponderance of bones, muscles, connective tissue and heart/blood vessels. In terms of personality, they are assertive, adventurous, like power and dominance, enjoy risk and taking chances, and are ruthless (this was termed somatonia). Body type is related to personality, which itself is related to criminality Heavily criticized Eysenck’s Biosocial Theory Personality factors 3 major, largely unrelated, components of personality – psychoticism, extraversion, and neuroticism (PEN) Psychoticism: aggressive, antisocial, cold, creative, egocentric, impersonal, Criminals should show higher impulsive, tough-minded and lacking empathy levels of extraversion, psychoticism and neuroticism. ▪ Extraverts condition poorly Extraversion: active, assertive, creative, carefree, dominant, lively, and so do not readily learn sensation-seeking and venturesome to behave in a socially acceptable way. Neuroticism: anxious, depressed, emotional, guilt feelings, irrational, low self- ▪ Neurotics condition poorly esteem, moody, shy and tense because their anxiety interferes with learning. ▪ Psychoticism is very like what we refer to as psychopathy which is associated with antisocial behaviour. Eysenck’s Biosocial Theory Environmental factors Criminal behavior (and other forms of antisocial behavior) results from a failure of socialization to stop immature tendencies in some individuals – These immature tendencies include being concerned solely for oneself and wanting immediate gratification for one’s own needs – The process of socialization is responsible for making individuals more social and, thus, less criminal Socialization (through classical Pavlovian conditioning) leads to a situation in which even the thought of acting antisocially leads to the unpleasant pain or anxiety of the unconditioned stimulus – To avoid this pain or anxiety, the individual avoids thinking of or engaging in antisocial behavior Introverts (are low on extraversion) tend to learn quickly through conditioning, whereas extraverts (high on extraversion) condition much more slowly Eysenck’s Biosocial Theory - Evaluation Pros Cons Remarkable in its scope. Like some other Eysenck’s theory has tended to be seen by theories, it was an account of general many psychologists as based on flawed data. criminality, although he believed that some patterns of personality might be more Although the theory is impressive in that it common in different sorts of offender. operates at both the biological and the social levels, in fact social input is little more than a Brings together several different levels of matter of rewards and punishments (e.g., little theorising. space for sociological approaches). Eysenck’s theory was conceived to be part of a grand conception of human behaviour which became reduced to just a few key concepts. Social Learning Theory Imitation and modelling behaviors Widely accepted that learning can occur through modelling (i.e. observing the experiences of other people being rewarded or punished) Bandura’s early studies demonstrated that young children imitate the actions of adults, modelling behaviours such as hitting an inflatable clown-doll with a hammer How does this concept play into explaining crime and criminality? – To suggest that people learn their violent and criminal actions from others is a weak argument Unless violence and crime are entirely genetically transmitted then inevitably, they must be learnt socially in some way – Any explanation of violence and crime in terms of learning is not particularly helpful unless the conditions under which it is learnt can specified Miller and Dollard (1941), recognised that rewards and punishments are involved in the reproduction of modelled behaviour. If a model were rewarded for theft then we would expect that the observer would be more likely to reproduce that behaviour, whereas if the model is punished, for example sent to prison, then we might expect the observer to be less likely to exhibit that behaviour. Crime is not always goal -directed Social Learning - Evaluation Pros Cons Dealing with the learning of complex forms of The theory’s weak ability to explain under behavior holistically rather than as a process of what circumstances criminal behavior will slow conditioning. or will not be learnt means that it has Stresses the importance of normal processes in limited explanatory power. the acquisition of behavior. Therefore, there is What about children who grow up in such no need to assume some sort of pathology in conditions (observing criminal behaviour those who become criminal. that is rewarded) and do not offend? There is a wealth of support for the principles of SLT (mainly from longitudinal studies) Strain Theories Number of strain theories attempt to explain criminality The sociologist Robert K. Merton introduced the concept in the 1960s – He proposed that crime was (social) structural in nature – The idea was that if normal opportunities to attain goals successfully are in some way blocked, this generates strain or frustration which acts something like a pressure towards criminality -> The individual was said to be exhibiting a state of anomie or normlessness -> So the desire for monetary success is an American value and (lower SES) individuals lack of opportunities in their immediate environment may lead them to crime to achieve that end, albeit illicitly – Lack of support for this theory – Other theorists have suggested that strain is unlikely to operate in this way unless the individual is part of a deviant subculture General Strain Theory This refers mainly to young people, pressuring them to delinquency Main negative emotion is anger, but also depression, disappointment, fear Certain strains are more related to delinquency than others including: o child abuse and neglect o failure to obtain goals easily through legitimate means o harsh, erratic parental discipline o homelessness o rejection by parents o unemployment or very poor- quality employment. General Strain Theory - Evaluation Pros Cons Research finds some but not complete support. Under development, thus, the strength There is research linking negative life of all of its principles is not known experiences, anger and other negative emotions and delinquency. The theory is fairly an encompassing theory to explain deviant behavior and criminality particularly. Relevant to the field especially as it is a clearly psychological approach, and its level of analysis is largely socio-psychological. Social Construction Social constructionism can be banal as an explanation and, as such, is weak in terms of explanatory power – It is not helpful to speak of knowledge being socially constructed without knowing by whom it was constructed and what ends it served (the social world profoundly affects all we think and do) Elite social constructionism (Howitt, 1992) assumes that knowledge does not just happen in society, but effective knowledge is that which is produced, disseminated and advocated by social groups of some status, standing or power – Much of this knowledge can be seen in the interests of the group promoting that knowledge – This has profoundly affected the law, of course, and has implications for the study of forensic and criminal psychology – E.g. the medical profession, especially during the 19th and early 20th centuries, had an immense influence on the way in which many social issues were construed and dealt with (Haller and Haller, 1974). the medical model for studying social problems such as crime is based on the idea that a disease (or pathological condition) is the cause – hence the search for biological characteristics peculiar to criminals. Thinking about drugs is a good example since users are assumed to be seen as ‘flawed’ psychologically and physically susceptible Social Construction - Evaluation Pros Cons Encourages awareness of societal processes Does not explain crime but it does help us to that change our ideas of crime and criminals. understand why conceptualizations of crime Agencies in the criminal justice system may are what they are. have their own viewpoints and priorities about Its relevance to the day-to-day activities of the ways in which issues are understood. forensic and criminal psychologists may be The theory should encourage researchers to limited. explore the origins of new ways of thinking about crime (e.g., the idea of a ‘war’ on drugs powerfully structures the way in which the policing of drugs may operate). Theories of Crime - Summary Activity Read the following case study. Select one of the theories of crime previously presented and For example, if one chooses a psychoanalytic approach, they will highlight identify from the case study relevant information that will help information regarding early childhood experiences. you conceptualize this case study. Based on the selected theory, identify areas domains that you will For example, if one has chosen a psychoanalytic approach, they will want to want to collect more information. collect more information regarding attachment style and history. Case Study John Smith was born in 1995 in Detroit, Michigan. Pre-natal care and other issues are unknown. However, there is suspected in utero drug exposure. John and his family moved to Alabama by the time his younger sister was born in August 1997. In Alabama, John and his family lived in various campgrounds. An incident of alleged sexual abuse and multiple instances of exposure to age-inappropriate content are reported for when he lived there. John and his sister moved back to Michigan. John and his sister were placed in foster care in July 2005. Before being placed in foster care, John and his sister lived in several homes. In Alabama and Michigan and, while his parents were incarcerated over the years, they lived either with family friends or with family without an agency or court order in place. John remained in contact with his biological parents until the age of 14. At school, he was been identified as a student with an Emotional Disability and has a diagnosis of ADHD. He started receiving outpatient services to address behavioral concerns at the age of 10, when he was placed in foster care. Therapy and psychopharmacology treatments have been “limited and inconsistently effective.” John is currently incarcerated for rape and was referred to you after making threats to kill one of his cell mates. Developmental and Life-Course Criminology (DLC) But, many of these theories deal with just one causal factor at a time; this is far too simplistic and theories are needed that combine multiple causal factors. Some of the best multi-factorial theories of offending have been developed via the developmental life-course approach to criminology (DLC)- (e.g. Moffitt’s, 1993, developmental taxonomy- see in textbook p.96-optional reading). DLC is concerned with three topics: 1) The development of offending from “the womb to the tomb”. 2) The influence of risk and protective factors at different ages. 3) The effect of life events on the course of development. Developmental and Life-Course Criminology (DLC) DLC is based on findings from longitudinal studies ▪ Strengths of longitudinal studies: able to establish causal relationships at a satisfactory level, as we know the temporal order DCL approach develops complex multi-factorial theories that provide a powerful method for developing comprehensive explanations of antisocial behaviour and has yielded some of the best explanations that exist to explain crime, as crime is a complex phenomenon to be explained only by a single factor. ▪ However, these complex theories have their own limitations (e.g. they cannot explain everything/ methodological issues- some are based only on male samples) Chapter 6-Juvenile offenders and beyond Adolescents, crime and the family (p.86-88) Criminogenic factors in childhood (p.88-89) Box 6.1 Key concept-factors protective from delinquency (p.94-96) Social interventions to reduce delinquency (p.106-108) Risk Factors The evidence Haapasalo and Pokela reviewed strongly indicated that the following are risk factors of antisocial and criminal behaviour: o deviant parental characteristics (criminality, substance abuse, mental problems) o family disruption (separations, divorce, instability, marital conflict) o lack of love or rejection o laxness (poor monitoring, lack of supervision) o punitive child-rearing practices and attitudes (including corporal punishment, strict discipline, authoritarian attitudes). Based on current knowledge, the following risk factors should be prime targets for intervention efforts: impulsiveness, low school achievement, poor child‐rearing methods, young mothers, child abuse, parental conflict and disrupted families, poverty, delinquent peers and deprived neighbourhoods. ❖ see also Farrington, D.P. (2015).The Developmental Evidence Base: Psychosocial research in D.A. Crighton and J.T. Graham (second edition), Forensic Psychology (pp.161-182), John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Risk and Protective Factors 4 major methods of crime prevention (Farrington, 1998): 1. Situational prevention, which involves targeting the physical environment in ways which make it difficult to commit a crime, while maximizing the risk of getting caught 2. The traditional criminal justice approach which involves deterrents, incapacitation and rehabilitation 3. The community prevention interventions which are designed to change social conditions and institutions (e.g., families and parenting) 4. Developmental prevention which involves tackling the risk factors involved in youthful criminality Why do not all children that experience poor parenting will not become delinquent and criminal? Protective factor: it is not merely the opposite of a risk factor (e.g. bad parenting vs. good parenting) but it goes further to include factors which, if they co-occur with risk factors, will reduce the impact of those risk factors. poor parenting may be a risk factor for antisocial behaviour but some at-risk children may have grandparents close by who take a great interest in the child. Grandparents in these circumstances can be described as a protective factor. Goal: Focusing both on risk and protective factors https://youth.gov/youth-topics/juvenile-justice/risk- and-protective- factors?fbclid=IwAR29JMauWnt7cqANVeXDSfZC IjwMxnEHE_6F2b9JNduTMd3NmofHkUGTWCs Social Interventions to Reduce Delinquency Early childhood intervention programmes – Educational programmes (pre-school/kindergarten) – Parent-focused family support programs (regular home visits from professionals) – Or a mixture of the two (studies indicate that this the most effective intervention in terms of reducing anti-social behaviour) Interventions on active delinquents e.g. The Persistent Young Offender Project : – one-to-one mentoring in order to help the youngster reintegrate into the school – group work addressing life problem-solving, anger management, victim awareness, interpersonal skills, substance misuse, appropriate sexual behavior and health – self-esteem and social skills building activities such as music, art and drama  Video Resources Trait Theory - History of Personality Psychology https://youtu.be/oUgCIvKxbAE The case of Phineas Gage https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZKaD Wu2zFG0 The Classic Bobo Doll Experiment http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dmBq wWlJg8U Questions? Thank you!