Week 1 Physiology PDF

Name of Department : Physical Therapy and Rehabilitation (English) Course Code and Name : PHYSIOLOGY (BEY 141-E) Course Week : 1 Course Day and Time : Friday (14:00 to 17:45) ROOM 101 (Block B) InformationCourse Credit/ACTS : 3 Exa...

Name of Department : Physical Therapy and Rehabilitation (English) Course Code and Name : PHYSIOLOGY (BEY 141-E) Course Week : 1 Course Day and Time : Friday (14:00 to 17:45) ROOM 101 (Block B) InformationCourse Credit/ACTS : 3 Examination Type and Gradings : Assignments and Mcqs Instructor’s Name & Surname : Dr. Nasir Mustafa E-mail & Phone: : [email protected] Instructor’s Room : 304 Block - B Office Hours : 9:00 to 18:00 GBS Link : https://gbs.gelisim.edu.tr/en/lesson-details-5-159-11120-2 ALMS Link : https://lms.gelisim.edu.tr/almsp/u/Home/Index AVESIS Link : https://avesis.gelisim.edu.tr/nmustafa  | 14 WEEKS’S COURSE CONTENTS | 1. INTRODUCTION TO PHYSIOLOGY, CELLS, 9. HEART TISSUES, ORGANS AND SYSTEMS 10. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 2. CELL ORGANELLES AND CELL TRANSPORT MECHANISMS 11. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 3. DISTRIBUTION OF BODY FLUIDS, ELECTROLYTES 12. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM 4. BLOOD 13. REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 5. CIRCULATORY SYSTEM 14. EXCRETION SYSTEM 6. NERVOUS SYSTEM 7. MUSCULAR AND SKELETAL SYSTE 15. SYSTEMS OVERVIEW 8. MID-TERM EXAM 16. FINAL EXAM  | Course Assessment | Activities could be quizzes, assignments, presentation, report, project, ………..  | NOTE | Attendance Attendance is mandatory for all scheduled lectures.  | NOTE | Assignment Deliver the assignments before the deadline.  | NOTE | Quiz Quizzes will be held online. (No excuses)  | NOTE | Be Responsible Come to class on time.  | NOTE | Be disciplined Avoid talking to friends in the class.  | NOTE | Show discipline Mobiles are not allowed in the class.  | WEEKLY LEARNING OUTCOMES | Introduction to Physiology: Understand physiology and the concept of homeostasis. Cellular Structure: Learn the structure and function of human cells. Cellular Processes: Explore metabolism, cell communication, and division. Tissue Types: Identify and understand the roles of the four basic tissue types. Organs and Systems: Learn how tissues form organs and how organ systems function. Integration of Systems: Analyze how organ systems collaborate to maintain health and balance.  | ABOUT THE PREVIOUS LESSON | Physiology: The study of how body systems, organs, tissues, and cells work together to maintain life and homeostasis. Cells: The basic units of life, consisting of membranes, nuclei, and cytoplasm, performing essential functions. Tissues: Four types—epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous—each with specific roles. Organs: Structures made of multiple tissues that perform distinct functions (e.g., heart, lungs). Organ Systems: Groups of organs that work together (e.g., respiratory, digestive) to maintain homeostasis and overall body function.  | DAILY FLOW | 09:00-10:50/ 1st Hour 10:00-10:50/ 2nd Hour 11:00-11:50/ 3rd Hour 12:00-12:45/ 4th Hour  Depth and Breath Conceptual Depth and Practical Depth Thematic Breadth and Interdisciplinary Breadth Teaching Methods and Techniques Lectures: Traditional method where the instructor presents information to the class. Effective for delivering large amounts of content efficiently. Presentation: Interactive sessions that allow for deeper discussion, hands-on practice, and exploration of specific topics. Group Projects: Collaborative work that encourages teamwork and application of concepts in a practical context. Problem-Based Learning (PBL): Students work on complex, real-world problems, which helps develop critical thinking and problem-solving skills. Flipped Classroom: Students review lecture material at home and engage in interactive activities during class time to deepen understanding. Online Learning Modules: Use of digital platforms for delivering content, quizzes, and interactive activities that allow for flexible learning. Assessments and Feedback: Regular evaluations through quizzes, exams, and assignments, coupled with constructive feedback to guide learning progress.  LEARNING OBJECTIVES: Understand Physiology: Define physiology and describe its importance in understanding bodily functions and homeostasis. Identify Cell Structures: Recognize and explain the main components of human cells and their specific functions. Describe Cellular Processes: Analyze key cellular processes, including metabolism, communication, and cell division. Classify Tissue Types: Identify and categorize the four major tissue types and their respective roles in the body. Explain Organ Functions: Understand how various tissues combine to form organs and describe the specific functions of selected organs. Integrate Organ Systems: Explain how different organ systems interact and collaborate to maintain homeostasis and overall health.  DEFINITION OF CELL The smallest structural and functional unit of an organism, typically microscopic and consisting of cytoplasm and a nucleus enclosed in a membrane.  CELL Cells are the basic building blocks of all living things. The human body is composed of trillions of cells. They provide structure for the body, take in nutrients from food, convert those nutrients into energy, and carry out specialized functions.  DISCOVERY OF CELL The cell was first discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665, He was the first person to study living things under a microscope and observed honeycomb- like structures. Robert Hooke called these structures cells.  CELL THEORY Schleiden and Schwann together formulated the cell theory. The main points are as under: 1. All living organisms are composed of one or more cells. 2. The cell is the basic unit of structure and organization in organisms. 3. Cells arise from pre-existing cells.  COMPONENTS OF A CELL Organelles in present in animal cell are following : 1) Nucleus 2) Rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum 3) Mitochondria 4) Golgi apparatus 5) Lysosomes 6) Ribosome 7) Centrioles 8) Vacuoles  MEMBRANE BOUND ORGANELLES Eukaryotic cells contain many membrane-bound organelles. An organelle is an organized and specialized structure within a living cell. The organelles include the nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, vacuoles, lysosomes and mitochondria. Examples of non-membrane bound organelles are ribosomes, the cell wall, and the cytoskeleton. ORGANELLES ORGANELLES  NUCLEUS STRUCTURE Spherical with double membrane contains nucleolus, chromosome, and nuclear membrane FUNCTION Control and regulate all activities on cell Contain hereditary factor (gene) responsible for the trait  Rough and Smooth ER STRUCTURE System of membrane enclosed tubules closely packed together and continuous with nuclear membrane Rough ER has ribosome while smooth ER did not have FUNCTION Transport system for protein and lipid within the cell Rough ER transport protein synthesis by ribosome to other part of the cell Smooth ER stimulate the synthesis of lipid and cholesterol and transport within cell  RIBOSOME STRUCTURE Small particle consist of RNA Exist freely in cytoplasm or on the surface of rough ER FUNCTION Synthesis of protein  MITOCHONDRIA STRUCTURE Rod-shape with a double membrane Outer membrane is smooth and regular while inner membrane is folded to form cristae FUNCTION Known as the ‘power-house’ of the cell Releases energy as it the site for aerobic respiration  GOLGI APPARATUS STRUCTURE Vacuolar region surrounded by a complex meshwork of vesicles budding off at its end FUNCTION Receive protein and lipid from ER and modify them to form secretion enzyme /hormone Pack the secretion formed into vesicle and transport to plasma membrane Control secretory activity Form lysosome  LYSOSOMES STRUCTURE Membrane bound vesicle found in animal FUNCTION Contain enzyme which control breakdown of protein and lipid Contain enzyme that digest aged or defective cell component  CENTRIOLES STRUCTURE Consist of two cylindrical body structure arranged at right angles to one another Only in animal cell FUNCTION Formation of spindle fiber during cell division  VACUOLE STRUCTURE Cavities filled with cell fluid surrounded by a semi-permeable membrane. FUNCTION In animal cells, vacuoles perform mostly subordinate roles, assisting in larger processes of exocytosis and endocytosis. NON-ORGANELLES  PLASMA MEMBRANE STRUCTURE Thin, semi-permeable membrane made up of lipid bilayer FUNCTION Control the movement of substance in and out of the cell  CYTOPLASM STRUCTURE Jelly-like substance contain water and mineral salt Contain organelles FUNCTION Medium for metabolic reaction  ORGANELLES & FUNCTIONS Mitochondria: supplies energy to the cell Vacuole: used for storage Lysosomes: protect the cell from invaders, break down and digest it Centriole: makeup cilia and flagella, helps in dividing DNA Vacuole: used for storage  ORGANELLES & FUNCTIONS Centriole: makeup cilia, and flagella, helps divide DNA Nucleus: stores genetic information Endoplasmic reticulum: produces protein and lipid, breaks down drug and alcohol Golgi apparatus: processes, sort & deliver proteins. Vesicles: transport materials from place to place within the cell Ribosomes: link amino acids to form proteins What is the concept of physiology? Physiology is the study of how the human body works. It describes the chemistry and physics behind basic body functions, from how molecules behave in cells to how systems of organs work together. It helps us understand what happens in a healthy body in everyday life and what goes wrong when someone gets sick igugelisim gelisimedu What are the types of physiology? According to the classes of organisms, the field can be divided into medical physiology, animal physiology, plant physiology, cell physiology, and comparative physiology. Central to physiological functioning are biophysical and biochemical processes, homeostatic control mechanisms, and communication between cells. igugelisim gelisimedu  Definition of Physiology Physics + Biology + Chemistry = Physiology The branch of science dealing with the basic functions of living organisms. Science of “function” Physiological: “Normal”; not pathological; properties belonging to normal functions of tissues, organs or body. igugelisim gelisimedu  What are the 5 subdivisions of physiology? 1. Neurophysiology. functional properties of nerve cells. 2. Endocrinology. hormones (chemical regulators in the blood) and how they control body functions. 3. Cardiovascular physiology. 4. Immunology. 5. Respiratory physiology. 6. Renal physiology. 7. Exercise physiology. 8. Pathophysiology. igugelisim gelisimedu Human Physiology Human physiology is the science of the mechanical, physical, and biochemical functions of normal humans or human tissues or organs. The principal level of focus of physiology is at the level of organs and systems. To explain the specific characteristics and mechanisms of the human body that make it a living being. igugelisim gelisimedu Why do we study Human Physiology ? Physiology is an experimental scientific discipline and is of central importance in medicine and related health sciences. It provides a thorough understanding of normal body function, enabling more effective treatment of abnormal or disease states. We use innovative teaching methods to enhance our teaching. igugelisim gelisimedu Human Physiology The Human Physiology is an important basis for; 1. Pathophysiology 2. Pharmacology 3. Immunology 4. Biochemistry 5. Microbiology The Seven Properties of Life: 1) Cellular organization 2) Heredity 3) Homeostasis 4) Metabolism 5) Responsiveness 6) Reproduction 7) Growth and development Physiological terms; Function: Things to do... Mechanism: How to do... Organization of life: Cell is the basic unit of life Hierarchical organization: Cells, tissues, organs, organ systems and organism igugelisim gelisimedu Homeostasis relates to dynamic physiological processes that help us maintain an internal environment suitable for normal function. Homeostasis is not the same as chemical or physical equilibrium HOMEOSTASIS Homeostasis is the tendency of biological systems to maintain relatively constant conditions in the internal environment while continuously interacting with and adjusting to changes originating within or outside the system. Physiological Systems ORGAN SYSTEM An organ system is a group of organs that work together to perform a complex function. There are eleven organ systems in the human body. All of these are required for survival, either of the person or of the species. igugelisim gelisimedu ORGAN SYSTEM Cardiovascular System Respiratory System Digestive System Urinary System Reproductive System Musculoskeletal System Nervous System Endocrine System Blood and Immune System igugelisim gelisimedu Respiratory System The respiratory system is the network of organs and tissues that help you breathe. It includes your airways, lungs and blood vessels. The muscles that power your lungs are also part of the respiratory system. These parts work together to move oxygen throughout the body and clean out waste gases like carbon dioxide. iguelisim gelisimedu Gastrointestinal Tract The GI tract is a series of hollow organs joined in a long, twisting tube from the mouth to the anus. The hollow organs that make up the GI tract are the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and anus. The liver, pancreas, and gallbladder are the solid organs of the digestive system. Major functions of the gastrointestinal tract includes The six activities involved in this process are ingestion, motility, mechanical digestion, chemical digestion, absorption, and defecation igugelisim gelisimedu Musculoskeletal System Musculoskeletal system includes bones, muscles, tendons, ligaments and soft tissues. They work together to support your body's weight and help you move. Injuries, disease and aging can cause pain, stiffness and other problems with movement and function. Protects and supports body organs, and provides a framework the muscles use to cause movement. Blood cells are formed within bones. Bones store minerals. igugelisim gelisimedu Urinary System The kidneys perform their function by first filtering blood through the glomeruli. Then reabsorbing into the blood those substances needed by the body, such as glucose, amino acids, appropriate amounts of water, and many of the ions. Substances including end products of cellular metabolism, such as urea and uric acid and excesses of ions and water pass through the renal tubules into the urine. igugelisim gelisimedu Nervous System The nervous system or neural network is an organ system that allows living things to perceive their internal and external environment, obtains and processes information, provides the transmission of signals to different parts of the body thanks to the network of cells, and regulates the activities of organs and muscles. The nervous system is composed of three major parts: 1. the sensory input portion, 2. the central nervous system (or integrative portion), 3. the motor output portion. igugelisim gelisimedu Endocrine System The endocrine system is a messenger system comprising feedback loops of the hormones released by internal glands of an organism directly into the circulatory system, regulating distant target organs. In vertebrates, the hypothalamus is the neural control center for all endocrine systems. igugelisim gelisimedu Cardiovascular System The system that contains the heart and the blood vessels and moves blood throughout the body. This system helps tissues get enough oxygen and nutrients, and it helps them get rid of waste products. The lymph system, which connects with the blood system, is often considered part of the circulatory system. igugelisim gelisimedu Immune System The immune system is a network of biological processes that protects an organism from diseases. It detects and responds to a wide variety of pathogens, from viruses to parasitic worms, as well as cancer cells and objects such as wood splinters, distinguishing them from the organism's own healthy tissue. igugelisim gelisimedu Lymphatic System The tissues and organs that produce, store, and carry white blood cells that fight infections and other diseases. This system includes the bone marrow, spleen, thymus, lymph nodes, and lymphatic vessels (a network of thin tubes that carry lymph and white blood cells). Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to blood. Disposes of debris in the lymphatic stream. Houses white blood cells (lymphocytes) involved in immunity. The immune response mounts the attack against foreign substances within the body. igugelisim gelisimedu Integumentary System The integumentary system is the largest organ of the body that forms a physical barrier between the external environment and the internal environment that it serves to protect and maintain. The integumentary system includes. Skin (epidermis, dermis) Hypodermis. Associated glands. Forms the external body covering, and protects deeper tissues from injury. Synthesizes vitamin D, and houses cutaneous (pain, pressure, etc.) receptors and sweat and oil glands igugelisim gelisimedu Extracellular Fluid—The “Internal Environment” About 60 percent of the adult human body is fluid, mainly a water solution of ions and other substances. Most of this fluid is inside the cells and is called intracellular fluid, about one third is in the spaces outside the cells and is called extracellular fluid. igugelisim gelisimedu Internal Environment Total body water = 60 % BW Extracellular fluid 1/3 Intracellular fluid 2/3 62 Extracellular Fluid—The “Internal Environment” In the extracellular fluid; there are ions and nutrients needed by the cells to maintain cell life. All cells live in essentially the same environment—the extracellular fluid. For this reason, the extracellular fluid is also called the internal environment of the body, or the milieu intérieur (C Bernard). igugelisim gelisimedu Extracellular Fluid—The “Internal Environment” igugelisim gelisimedu Homeostasis Maintenance of nearly constant conditions in the internal environment. Homeostasis, from the Greek words for "same" and "steady," refers to any process that living things use to actively maintain fairly stable conditions necessary for survival. The term was coined in 1930 by the physician Walter Cannon. Homeostasis has found useful applications in the social sciences. Examples include thermoregulation, blood glucose regulation, baroreflex in blood pressure, calcium homeostasis, potassium homeostasis, and osmoregulation. igugelisim gelisimedu  The golden goal of every organ: to maintain homeostasis. Homeostasis Keeping the internal environment stable, against constantly changing circumstances. A dynamical balance of the internal environment. Claude Bernard; The father of modern Physiology;...The internal environment remains relatively constant though there are changes in the external environment igugelisim gelisimedu Normal Physiological Ranges In fasting blood ; Arterial pH 7.35-7.45 Bicarbonate 24-28 mEq/L O2 content 17.2-22.0 ml/100 ml Total lipid 400-800 mg/100 ml Glucose 75-110 mg/100 ml igugelisim gelisimedu Homeostasis and control mechanisms igugelisim gelisimedu  Homeostasis and control mechanisms igugelisim gelisimedu Homeostasis and control mechanisms Successful compensation: Homestasis reestablished Unable to compensate: – Pathophysiology – Sickness – Death igugelisim gelisimedu Homeostasis and control mechanisms Regulation of body functions; 1. Chemical (hormonal) Regulation; a regulatory process performed by hormone or active chemical substance in blood or tissue. Example: Insulin hormone effect on blood glucose level. - Response slowly, acts extensively and lasts for a long time. igugelisim gelisimedu Homeostasis and control mechanisms Regulation of body functions; 2. Nervous Regulation: a process in which body functions are controlled by nervous system Example: baroreceptor reflex of arterial blood pressure - Response fast; acts exactly or locally, last for a short time igugelisim gelisimedu  Homeostasis and control mechanisms Regulation of body functions; 3. Autoregulation: a tissue or an organ can directly respond to environmental changes that are independent of nervous and hormonal control. – Extension of the effects is smaller than other two types. In the human body these three regulations have coordinated and acts as one system, “feedback control system”. igugelisim gelisimedu  Homeostasis and control mechanisms Feedback control system: The word “feedback” means a process in which a part of output (feedback signal) from controlled organ returns to affect or modify the action of the control system. Feedback control mechanism consists of two forms: negative and positive feedback control. igugelisim gelisimedu  Feedback Mechanism Types There are two types of feedback mechanisms, depending on whether the input changes or the physiological parameters deviate from their limits. Although the reactions of various processes to changes in variables varied, the loop’s components are similar. I. Positive feedback mechanism A positive feedback mechanism involves more stimulation or the acceleration of the process. II. Negative feedback mechanism means inhibit the process. igugelisim gelisimedu  Homeostasis and control mechanisms Principles of “feedback” igugelisim gelisimedu igugelisim gelisimedu Homeostasis and control mechanisms igugelisim gelisimedu BLOOD CLOTTING When a wound creates bleeding, the body responds by clotting the blood and preventing blood loss through a positive feedback loop. The wounded blood vessel wall releases substances that start the clotting process. Platelets in the blood begin to adhere to the wounded area and produce substances that attract more platelets. As the platelets continue to accumulate, more chemicals are released, and more platelets are drawn to the clot location. The clotting process is accelerated by the positive feedback until the clot is large enough to halt the bleeding. igugelisim gelisimedu Blood Clotting Mechanism during Positive feedback system.  Childbirth In humans, a positive feedback mechanism is noticed during childbirth, which is caused by the baby pressing against the ovary wall. The brain receives the pushing feeling via several nerves, and the pituitary is stimulated to generate oxytocin in response. The oxytocin feedback loop is responsible for uterine muscle contractions, which cause the fetus to come closer to the cervix, thereby increasing the stimulation. Until the baby is born, the positive feedback loop continues. The positive feedback loop that regulates childbirth is seen in the diagram above. When the infant’s head bumps up against the cervix, the procedure usually starts. Nerve impulses flow from the cervix to the hypothalamus in the brain as a result of this stimulation. The hypothalamus responds by sending the hormone oxytocin to the pituitary gland, which secretes it into the bloodstream to reach the uterus. Oxytocin causes uterine contractions to increase, pushing the baby closer to the cervix. As a result, the cervix begins to dilate in preparation for the baby’s passage. Increased levels of oxytocin, stronger uterine contractions, and wider cervix dilatation continue this cycle of positive feedback until the baby is pushed through the delivery canal and out of the body. The cervix is no longer stimulated to send nerve impulses to the brain at this stage, and the entire process comes to a halt. igugelisim gelisimedu igugelisim gelisimedu Negative feedback mechanism A negative feedback mechanism, often known as negative feedback homeostasis, is a pathway that is triggered by a deviation in output and produces changes in output in the opposite direction of the initial deviation. After the control unit analyzes the magnitude of the deviation, the negative feedback mechanism drives the variable factors towards a stable state or homeostasis. Positive feedback loops are less prevalent than negative feedback loops because negative feedback loops tend to stabilize the system. igugelisim gelisimedu igugelisim gelisimedu Regulating Temperature A typical example of a negative feedback mechanism in the human body is the regulation of body temperature via endotherms. When the body’s temperature rises above normal, the brain sends signals to various organs, including the skin, to release heat in the form of sweat. These physiological actions cause the temperature to drop to the point where the negative feedback mechanism’s pathways are shut down. When the body temperature rises above its typical level in order to preserve homeostasis, a similar mechanism happens. igugelisim gelisimedu igugelisim gelisimedu Regulating Blood Glucose Level A negative feedback mechanism regulates the concentration of glucose in the blood. More glucose is absorbed in the gut and stored in the form of glycogen in the liver when blood glucose levels rise above the usual range. Insulin secretion from the pancreas is in charge of conversion and conservation. Insulin encourages glucose absorption in the muscles and liver. When blood glucose levels drop and more glucose is needed in the blood, insulin release is suppressed, which reduces blood glucose absorption. igugelisim gelisimedu igugelisim gelisimedu  Homeostasis and control mechanisms Negative feedback Response turns off the stimulus Examples: Control of blood pressure Control of blood glucose Control of blood oxygene and carbondioxide levels Maintanence of sodium and fluid content of blood Control of body temperature Control of acidity of body fluids … igugelisim gelisimedu  Homeostasis and control mechanisms Negative feedback Response turns off the stimulus Example: Control of blood pressure igugelisim gelisimedu  Homeostasis and control mechanisms Compensation limits igugelisim gelisimedu  Homeostasis and control mechanisms Positive feedback Response enhances the stimulus Examples: Blood coagulation Child birth Generation of action potential igugelisim gelisimedu  Homeostasis and control mechanisms Positive feedback Response enhances the stimulus Examples: Blood coagulation Child birth Generation of action potential igugelisim gelisimedu  Homeostasis and control mechanisms Positive feedback Response enhances the stimulus Examples: Blood coagulation Child birth Generation of action potential igugelisim gelisimedu  Homeostasis and control mechanisms Feed-forward control (adaptive control system) (preparing the body for an anticipated change): – Control of movement and balance – Learning igugelisim gelisimedu  Homeostasis and control mechanisms Significance of Feedback-forward : adaptive feedback control. Makes the human body to foresee and adapt the environment promptly and exactly. (prepare the body for the change). igugelisim gelisimedu  Homeostasis and control mechanisms Adaptation and acclimatization Biological rhythms Regulation of cell death-Apoptosis igugelisim gelisimedu Summary 1. What is Physiology? 2. What is Human Physiology? 3. What are the living units of the body? 4. How many cells are in the human body? 5. 2 basic and common characteristics of cells? 6. What is homeostasis? 7. How is homeostasis maintained? 8. List the organ systems. 9. Explain the exchange between the capillaries and Interstitial Fluid? 10. List the control systems in the human body. igugelisim gelisimedu  What is Physiology? Physiology is the scientific study of functions and mechanisms in a living system. igugelisim gelisimedu  What is Human Physiology? Human physiology seeks to understand the mechanisms that work to keep the human body alive and functioning, through scientific enquiry into the nature of mechanical, physical, and biochemical functions of humans, their organs, and the cells of which they are composed. igugelisim gelisimedu  What are the living units of the body? The cell (from Latin cellula 'small room') is the basic structural, functional, and biological unit of all known organisms. A cell is the smallest unit of life, and therefore, cells are often described as the "building blocks of life". igugelisim gelisimedu  What are the level of organization ? There are five levels: cells, tissue, organs, organ systems, and organisms. All living things are made up of cells. This is what distinguishes living things from other objects. igugelisim gelisimedu  How many cells are in the human body? Humans are complex organisms made up of trillions of cells, each with their own structure and function. Scientists have come a long way in estimating the number of cells in the average human body. Most recent estimates put the number of cells at around 30 trillion. Written out, that's 30,000,000,000,000! igugelisim gelisimedu  2 basic and common characteristics of cells? Cells are of two types: eukaryotic, which contain a nucleus, and prokaryotic cells , which do not have a nucleus, but a nucleoid region is still present. Prokaryotes are single-celled organisms, while eukaryotes can be either single-celled or multicellular. All cells have a cell membrane, cytoplasm, and DNA. cells differ in how their genetic information is contained. igugelisim gelisimedu  What is homeostasis? Homeostasis is the state of steady internal, physical, and chemical conditions maintained by living systems. This is the condition of optimal functioning for the organism and includes many variables, such as body temperature and fluid balance, being kept within certain pre-set limits (homeostatic range). igugelisim gelisimedu  How is homeostasis maintained? The endocrine system consists of a series of glands that secrete chemical regulators (hormones). The nervous system can detect deviation from the body's normal equilibrium (state of homeostasis) and sends messages to the affected organ to counteract this sturbance. igugelisim gelisimedu  How is homeostasis maintained? Examples of the systems/purposes which work to maintain homeostasis include: the regulation of temperature, maintaining healthy blood pressure, maintaining calcium levels, regulating water levels, defending against viruses and bacteria. igugelisim gelisimedu  What is an Organ systems ? An organ system is a group of organs that work together to perform one or more functions. Each organ has a specialized role in animal body, and is made up of distinct tissues. igugelisim gelisimedu  Explain the exchange between the capillaries and Interstitial Fluid? Capillary exchange refers to the exchange of material from the blood into the tissues in the capillary. Hydrostatic pressure is a force generated by the pressure of fluid on the capillary walls either by the blood plasma or interstitial fluid. igugelisim gelisimedu  What is exchanged in the capillaries? Fluid movement into and out of capillaries is mainly dependent on two forces: hydrostatic pressure and osmotic pressure. Eventually, the osmotic pressure in the interstitium becomes greater than the hydrostatic pressure in the capillary, and fluid returns to the capillaries. igugelisim gelisimedu  List the control systems in the human body? The different systems in the human body— digestive system, circulatory system, respiratory system, excretory system, nervous system, endocrine system, immune system, musculoskeletal system and integumentary system—help in their own way for maintaining the homeostasis in the internal environment igugelisim gelisimedu Recommended Reading Ganong’s Physiology Lippincott’s Physiology igugelisim gelisimedu Learning Objectives Introduction Definition of physiology and study area Definition of Homeostasis Body Control Mechanisms igugelisim gelisimedu  | WHAT TO TAKE HOME? | Key takeaways from course: Fundamental Physiology: Understanding physiology is essential for grasping how the body maintains homeostasis. Cellular Basis: Cells are the basic units of life, with specialized structures and functions. Tissue Diversity: The body consists of four main tissue types (epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous), each with unique roles. Organ Functionality: Organs are made of various tissues and perform vital functions for survival. System Interconnectedness: Organ systems work together to maintain homeostasis, highlighting their interdependence. Health Applications: Knowledge of physiology is crucial for understanding diseases and informing treatment strategies.  | QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS | Questions: Conceptual: How does homeostasis vary across organ systems, and how can disruptions affect them? Cellular: What are the implications of cellular differentiation and cell signaling on tissue formation and responses? Tissue Functionality: How do epithelial and connective tissues support organ integrity? Organ Systems: How do the respiratory and circulatory systems collaborate during physical activity? Clinical Relevance: How does understanding physiology aid in diagnosing and treating diseases? Suggestions: Interactive Learning: Engage in group discussions or case studies. Visual Aids: Use diagrams and animations to explain complex processes. Multimedia Resources: Incorporate videos or podcasts on physiological concepts.Hands- On Experience: Conduct lab sessions for observing cells and tissues. Regular Reviews: Implement quizzes or journals for reinforcement. Peer Teaching: Encourage students to present topics to enhance understanding.  | RECOMMENDED WEEKLY STUDIES | DAY 1: Introduction to Physiology Read about physiology and homeostasis; review key terms. DAY 2: Cellular Structure and Function Study cell biology; diagram a typical cell's structure. DAY 3: Cellular Processes and Communication Focus on metabolism and signaling; summarize key processes. DAY 4: Tissue Types and Functions Learn about the four tissue types; create a comparison table. DAY 5: Organs and Organ Systems Study organ structures and functions; prepare a presentation. DAY 6: Integration of Organ Systems Explore interactions between organ systems; participate in discussions. DAY 7: Review and Application Review key concepts, practice quizzes, and write a reflective journal.  | REFERENCES | "Human Physiology: From Cells to Systems" Authors: Lauralee Sherwood A comprehensive introduction to human physiology, emphasizing the integration of organ systems. "Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology" Authors: Elaine N. Marieb and Katja N. Hoehn This textbook provides a clear and concise overview of anatomy and physiology concepts. "Cell Biology" Authors: Thomas D. Pollard, William C. Earnshaw, and Jennifer Lippincott-Schwartz An in-depth exploration of cell structure and function, ideal for understanding cellular processes.  | ABOUT THE NEXT WEEK | Next Week’s Topic: CELL ORGANELLES AND CELL TRANSPORT MECHANISMS Cell Organelles and Cell Transport Mechanisms: Cell Organelles Nucleus: Contains DNA and regulates cell activities. Mitochondria: Produce ATP, providing energy for the cell. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): Rough ER: Synthesizes proteins. Smooth ER: Synthesizes lipids and detoxifies substances. Golgi Apparatus: Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids. Lysosomes: Digestive enzymes that break down waste. Ribosomes: Sites of protein synthesis. Plasma Membrane: Selectively permeable barrier regulating substance movement. Cytoskeleton: Provides structural support and shape. Cell Transport Mechanisms Passive Transport: Movement without energy, including diffusion, facilitated diffusion, and osmosis. Active Transport: Energy-requiring movement against concentration gradients, including primary and secondary active transport. Vesicular Transport: Involves endocytosis (bringing substances in) and exocytosis (releasing substances out).  ………….. – ………………………… Since course presentations are private, using the texts and images contained herein on social media or else without permission from the course instructor is against the regulations Law No. 6698.