WEEK 1- Elements of Fiction PDF

Elements of Fiction WHAT IS FICTION?  Fiction  Fiction can have  Fiction = some true facts, “make events, or people though believe” or “not true”...

Elements of Fiction WHAT IS FICTION?  Fiction  Fiction can have  Fiction = some true facts, “make events, or people though believe” or “not true” stories  Fiction  Fiction: A vague and general term for an imaginative work, usually in prose. At any rate, it does not normally cover poetry and drama though both are a form of fiction in that they are moulded and contrived- or feigned. Fiction is now used in general of the novel, the short story, the novella and related genres. ~ Elements of Fiction ~ 1) Setting 2) Character 3) Plot 4) Point of View 5) Theme  1) Setting The TIME and PLACE of the story (The “When” & “Where” of the Story)  Setting Long Ago Today In the Future  Stories don’t always directly tell us their time period  Sometimes we must figure it out from “clues” / descriptions in the story such as the style of clothing worn, the activities done, or the technology used by the characters. Setting is also the “place” of the story Stories can have more than one setting Setting  When examining how setting contributes to a story, there are multiple aspects to consider:  1) Place - Geographical location; where is the action of the story taking place?  2) Time - Historical period, time of day, year, etc; when is the story taking place?  3) Weather conditions - Is it rainy, sunny, stormy, etc?  4) Social conditions - What is the daily life of the character's like? Does the story contain local colour (writing that focuses on the speech, dress, mannerisms, customs, etc. of a particular place)?  5) Mood or atmosphere - What feeling is created at the beginning of the story? Cheerful or eerie? Setting: Example «It was a bright cold day in April, and the clocks were striking thirteen.» George Orwell, 1984 Setting: Example  “I write this sitting in the kitchen sink. That is, my feet are in it; the rest of me is on the draining-board." I Capture the Castle by Dodie Smith Setting can establish the atmosphere of a work. It Was a Dark and Stormy Night… Snoopy  2) Character A PERSON (or animals, things, etc. presented as people) in a fictional story (The “Who” of the Story)  Characters  Protagonist The main character in a literary work.  Antagonist The character who opposes the protagonist.  Types of Characters Round Character: convincing, true to life and have many character traits. Flat Character: One-dimensional character- stereotyped, shallow, often symbolic. Dynamic Character: undergoes some type of change in story because of something that happens to them. Static Character: does not change in the course of the story  Methods of Characterization direct- “he was an old man… characters’ thoughts, words, and actions reactions/comments of other characters character’s physical appearance "He no longer dreamed of characters’ thoughts storms, nor of women , nor of great occurrences, nor of great fish, nor fights, nor contests of strength, nor of his wife. He only dreamed of places now and of the lions on the beach. They played like young cats in the dusk and he loved them as he loved the boy." 3) Plot  The storyline or series of events and actions that takes place in a story. The “What Happened?” of the Story  Plot  The plot of a story is where the reader learns what is happening and in what order:  First...  Then...  Next...  Finally...  Plot Climax Fal ling n c tio gA Act sin ion Ri Exposition Resolution  *a traditional plot line  1. Exposition: This usually occurs at the beginning of the story. Here the characters are introduced. We also learn about the setting of the story and most importantly, we are introduced to the main conflict or problem  2. Rising action: Events in the story become complicated; the conflict is revealed.  3. Climax: This is the turning point of the story and is meant to be the moment of highest interest and emotion. The reader wonders what is going to happen next.  4. Falling action: All of the action which follows the Climax. The conflicts and complex are taken care of.  5. Resolution: The story comes to an end, the conclusion, the tying together of all loose ends of the plot.  Elements of Plot:Conflict A problem or struggle the character must face in the story  Elements of Plot Conflict Man VS Man Man VS Nature Man VS Society Man VS Himself  There are 2 types of Conflict Internal: External: Inside the Character Outside the Character  Internal Conflict Internal Conflict Internal conflicts are thoughts or feelings the characters struggle with like thinking they are going to lose a game or feeling worried.  Internal Conflict  Internal: Struggle within one's self. Character vs. Self - Struggles with own soul, physical limitations, choices, etc.  External Conflict Conditions or people that are causing problems for the main character are called external conflicts. These problems are happening “outside” of the character.  External Conflict  External: Struggle with a force outside one's self. Character vs. Character - Struggles against other people. Character vs. Nature - Struggles against animals, weather, environment, etc. Character vs. Society - Struggles against ideas, practices, or customs of others Do you think this character is having thoughts and feelings right about now? Conflict Sometimes there can be both internal and external conflict as characters react with thoughts and feelings to the problems occurring “outside” of themselves. 4) Point of View  The perspective from which the story is told. (Who is telling the story?) Point of View  There are several variations of POV: 1) First Person - Story told by the protagonist or a character who interacts closely with the protagonist or other characters; speaker uses the pronouns "I", "me", "we". Readers experiences the story through this person’s eyes and only knows what he/she knows and feels. Point of View 2) Second Person - Story told by a narrator who addresses the reader or some other assumed "you"; speaker uses pronouns "you", "your", and "yours". Ex: You wake up to discover that you have been robbed of all of your worldly possessions. Point of View 3) Third Person - Story told by a narrator who sees all of the action; speaker uses the pronouns "he", "she", "it", "they", "his", "hers", "its", and "theirs". This person may be a character in the story. There are several types of third person POV: Limited - Probably the easiest POV for a beginning writer to use, "limited" POV reveals all action through the eyes of a single character; readers only see what the narrator sees. Point of View Omniscient- God-like, the narrator knows and sees everything, and can move from one character’s mind to another. 5) Theme  The central/main idea of a piece of fiction. Theme a general statement of the central, underlying, and controlling idea or insight of a work of literature. the idea the writer wishes to convey about the subject—the writer’s view of the world or a revelation about human nature. can be expressed in a single sentence. Theme  Examples of common themes occurring in literature, on television, and in film are: Things are not always as they appear to be. Love is blind. Believe in yourself. People are afraid of change. Don't judge a book by its cover. REFERENCES  - Cuddon, J. A. (1999). The penguin dictionary of literary terms and literary theory. London: Penguin Books.  - Abrams, M. H., & Harpham, G. G. (2009). A glossary of literary terms. Boston: Cengage Learning.  https://www.google.com/search?q=elements+of+fiction+ppt&rlz=1C1GCEU_trTR938TR93 8&oq=elements+of+fiction+ppt&aqs=chrome..69i57j0i19j0i19i22i30l8.5266j0j15&source id=chrome&ie=UTF-8#  http://www.conejousd.org/Portals/41/Hoegeman/English%20- %20Elements%20of%20Fiction.ppt  https://www.rcboe.org/cms/lib010/GA01903614/Centricity/Domain/4395/Elements%20 of%20a%20Story.pdf LITERARY TERMS AND GENRES ETI 102 *Introduction to Literary Terms Persona: a character/mask assumed by an author or a poet in a written work. For example, the speaking voice or persona created by Dylan Thomas in “Do Not Go Gentle into That Good Night” Theme: A main idea or an underlying meaning of a literary work that may be stated directly or indirectly. (e.g. death and defiance) Imagery: consists of words or phrases an author or a poet uses to represent persons, objects, actions, feelings, and ideas descriptively by appealing to the 5 senses. (e.g. blazing meteors, raisins drying in the sun, meat rotting, etc.) *Introduction to Literary Terms Simile: A comparison of two different things or ideas through the use of the words “like” or “as.” It is an explicit comparison (as opposed to the metaphor where, the comparison is implicit) recognizable by the use of the words 'like’ or 'as’. Examples: She is as beautiful as a rose. / He was as red as a lobster. / She acts like a lady. ▪ Metaphor: Hidden comparison of two unlike things NOT using “like” or “as.” Example: Ali is a lion! (Ali is fierce and brave like a lion. Unless Ali is an animal which lives in the zoo and goes by the name Ali, this is not a literal but a metaphorical statement.) *Introduction to Literary Terms Analogy: An analogy is a literary device that helps to establish a relationship based on similarities between two concepts or ideas. Examples: Writing is as essential for her as breathing. 'As the caterpillar chooses the fairest leaves to lay her eggs on, so the priest lays his curse on the fairest joys.’ (from Blake’s Aphorism) Metaphor vs Analogy Metaphors compare object to object. (“The stars were diamonds in the night sky.”) Analogies compare relationship to relationship. (“Her writing was as essential to her as water was to fish.”) *Introduction to Literary Terms Hyperbole: A deliberate, extravagant, and often outrageous exaggeration; may be used for either serious or comic effect. Example: “I’ve told you a million times!” ▪ Allusion: An allusion is an indirect reference to a person, place, event, or artistic work. Allusions assume a level of familiarity on the part of the reader with the work, person, or event referenced. “Then I was back in it. The War was on. Outside, in Worcester, Massachusetts, were night and slush and cold, and it was still the fifth of February, 1918.” (allusion to WWI—FROM «In the Waiting Room»)) *Introduction to Literary Terms Oxymoron: a figure of speech in which two seemingly opposing and contradictory elements are juxtaposed or appear in conjunction. Examples: “open secret,” “deafening silence,” “Act naturally!” “I am busy doing nothing!” etc. Shakespeare has his Romeo utter several in one speech: «Why then, O brawling love, O loving hate, O anything of nothing first create; O heavy lightness, serious vanity, Misshapen chaos of well-seeming forms, Feather of lead, bright smoke, cold fire, sick health, Still-waking sleep, that is not what it is!» *Introduction to Literary Terms ▪ Alliteration: The practice of beginning several consecutive or neighboring words with the same sound. Examples: Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers. / She sells seashells by the seashore. Irony: A contrast between appearance and reality; usually one in which reality is the opposite from what it seems; when something is expected to happen or be, and the exact opposite occurs. Irony is a figure of speech in which words are used in such a way that their intended meaning is different from the actual meaning of the words. It may also be a situation that may end up in quite a different way than what is generallyanticipated. In simple words, it is a difference between the appearance and the reality. *Introduction to Literary Terms Examples: --The butter is as soft as a marble piece. --“Oh great! Now you have broken my new camera!” ▪ Rhetorical Question: A rhetorical question is a figure of speech in the form of a question that is asked to make a point, or create a mood/an emotion, or give an idea rather than to elicit or require an answer. Rhetorical questions do not expect or require an answer in reply. Example: “Are you really gonna eat that dish?! Really?! It is greasy and unhealthy for you!” *Literary Genres: 1) Poetry Poetry is a form of literary art that uses aesthetic and rhythmic qualities of language to evoke meanings in addition to ordinary intended meaning. Poetry has traditionally been distinguished from prose by its being set in verse; prose is cast in sentences, poetry in lines. Types of Poetry a) Lyric Poetry ▪ A lyric poem is a comparatively short, non-narrative poem in which a single speaker presents a state of mind or an emotional state. ▪ Lyric poetry retains some of the elements of song which is said to be its origin: For Greek writers the lyric was a song accompanied by the lyre. 14 Example: «O wild West Wind, thou breath of Autumn's being, Thou, from whose unseen presence the leaves dead Are driven, like ghosts from an enchanter fleeing, Yellow, and black, and pale, and hectic red, Pestilence-stricken multitudes: O thou, Who chariotest to their dark wintry bed» from Ode to the West Wind by Percy Bysshe Shelley b) Narrative Poetry Narrative poetry gives a verbal representation, in verse, of a sequence of connected events, it propels characters through a plot. It is always told by a narrator. Narrative poems might tell of a love story, the story of a father and son or the deeds of a hero or heroine. 16 Example: Milton's Paradise Lost opens with the lines: "Of man’s first disobedience, and the fruit Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste Brought death into the world, and all our woe." 17  Milton calls upon a Muse for instruction and illumination: «…I thence Invoke thy aid to my adventrous Song, That with no middle flight intends to soar Above th' Aonian Mount, while it pursues Things unattempted yet in Prose or Rhime. And chiefly Thou, O Spirit, that dost prefer Before all Temples th' upright heart and pure, 18 Instruct me, for Thou know'st; Thou from the first Wast present, and with mighty wings outspread Dove-like satst brooding on the vast Abyss And mad'st it pregnant: What in me is dark Illumin, what is low raise and support; That to the highth of this great Argument I may assert Eternal Providence, And justifie the wayes of God to men.» 19 2) Prose Prose is a form of language that possesses ordinary syntax and natural speech rather than rhythmic structure; in which regard, along with its measurement in sentences rather than lines, it differs from poetry. Example: “It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession of a good fortune, must be in want of a wife.” ― Jane Austen, Pride and Prejudice  «As man can produce and certainly has produced a great result by his methodical and unconscious means of selection, what may not nature effect? Man can act only on external and visible characters: nature cares nothing for appearances, except in so far as they may be useful to any being. She can act on every internal organ, on every shade of constitutional difference, on the whole machinery of life.» (from Origin of Species, by Darwin) Types of Prose Fiction Prose fiction can be organized into three categories based on length: short stories, novellas and novels. The varying lengths often have some effect on the scope of the stories, with larger, sweeping novels often having larger, sweeping casts and plots. Shorter fiction has less room for a lot of characters and plots. 1) Short Story ✓ Short story ranges in length from a handful of pages to over thirty pages. Edgar Allan Poe wrote that a short story should not be longer than what a person could read in a single sitting, which he defined as 'requiring from a half-hour to one or two hours in its perusal.'  Short Story ✓ Short stories are usually defined as being between 2000- 6000 words long. ✓ Most short stories have at least one “round” character and any number of “flat” characters. ✓ Short stories tend to focus on one major source of conflict and often take place within one basic time period. Types of Prose Fiction 2) Novellas ✓ Novellas generally run between 50-150 pages, halfway between a story and a novel. ✓ Novellas are restricted to a single event, situation or conflict, which produces an element of suspense and leads to an unexpected turning point so that the conclusion surprises even while it is a logical outcome. Types of Prose Fiction 3) Novel ✓ Derived from ltalian novella,'tale, piece of news', and now applied to a wide variety of writings whose only common attribute is that they are extended pieces of prose fiction. ✓ The length of novels varies greatly and there has been much debate on how long a novel is or should be. ✓ There seem to be fewer and fewer rules, but it would probably be generally agreed that, in contemporary practice, a novel will be between 6o-70, 000 words and, say, 2OO, OOO. ✓ Because they are a longer form of fiction, an author has more freedom to work with plot and characters, as well as develop sub-plots and move freely through time. Characters can change and develop over the course of time and the theme(s) can be broader and more intricate than in shorter forms of fiction. Types of Novel a) The Picaresque Novel ✓ The picaresque novel is a type of novel that originated in 16th century Spain. It is a precursor to the modern novel. ✓ In the picaresque novel, a picaro - a kind of rogue wanderer/ bandit - tells about his various exploits and adventures. ✓ A picaresque novel is generally written in the first person as an autobiographical account. The Unfortunate Traveller is thought to be the first picaresque novel written in English. THE PICARESQUE NOVEL: The Unfortunate Traveller The Unfortunate Traveller is a picaresque novel, which means that the hero of the story is a rogue living by his wits, usually from the lower classes of society. The book tells the story of Jack Wilton as he wanders through Europe. The narrative makes sudden jumps from country to country, political situation to political situation, and of the tales of daring and adventure that focus on Wilton and his ability to get out of every difficult situation that he encounters using his guile and streetwise experiences. Whatever happens, Wilton seems to come out on top. Types of Novel b) Bildungsroman ✓ Bildungsroman - a novel of education/development ✓ A type of novel that treats the personal development of a single individual, usually in youth. It focuses on the psychological and moral growth of a character from youth to adulthood. It tells the story of a sensitive youth looking for answers and experience. *Charles Dickens’s David Copperfield (1849-50) David Copperfield is a classic example of the Bildungsroman, or “novel of education.” It not only traces the events of its protagonist’s childhood, adolescence, and young adulthood, but also (and more importantly) aims to demonstrate the role that those events played in David's growth and development. The ideal Victorian man was active and independent—that is, able to control the course of his own life through force of character rather than allowing his character to be shaped by his life. David learns, over the course of the novel, to rise above life’s challenges to become the master of his own destiny rather than a victim of his circumstances. Types of Novel c) Gothic Novel ✓ The atmosphere of a Gothic novel was expected to be dark, ghostly, full of madness, outrage, superstition, and the spirit of revenge. ✓ Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein, which maintains its original popularity, has in overplus the traditional Gothic ingredients, with its weird God-defying experiments, and, above all, its monster. Types of Novel d) Epistolary Novel ✓ a novel told through the medium of letters written by one or more of the characters. ✓ Originating with Samuel Richardson’s Pamela; or, Virtue Rewarded (1740), the story of a servant girl’s victorious struggle against her master’s attempts to seduce her, it was one of the earliest forms of novel to be developed and remained one of the most popular up to the 19th century. ✓ The epistolary novel’s reliance on subjective points of view makes it the forerunner of the modern psychological novel. Types of Novel ✓ The advantages of the novel in letter form are that it presents an intimate view of the character’s thoughts and feelings without interference from the author and that it conveys the shape of events to come with dramatic immediacy. Also, the presentation of events from several points of view lends the story dimension and verisimilitude. e) Detective Novel: ✓ The terms detective story, mystery, and thriller tend to be employed interchangeably. The detective story thrills the reader with mysterious crimes, usually of a violent nature, and puzzles his reason until their motivation and their perpetrator are, through some triumph of logic, uncovered. Types of Novel ✓ The detective novel began as a respectable branch of literature with works like Dickens’ unfinished Edwin Drood (1870), and Wilkie Collins’ Moonstone (1868) and Woman in White (1860). 3) Drama In general any work meant to be performed on a stage by actors. The form of composition designed for performance in the theater, in which actors take the roles of the characters, perform the indicated actions, and utter the written dialogue. (The common alternative name for a dramatic composition is a play.) TYPES OF DRAMA The Greek Tragedy and Comedy Tragedy A tragedy is a drama which, according to Aristotle, depicts the downfall of a basically good person through some fatal error or misjudgment, producing suffering and insight on the part of the protagonist and arousing pity and fear on the part of the audience. Three major Greek tragedians –Aeschylus (525-456 BCE) –Euripides (480-406 BCE) –Sophocles (495-406 BCE) *An Excerpt of the Classic Monologue from Oedipus the King When Oedipus discovers the truth of his actions, he is wrought with horror and self-loathing. In this monologue, he has blinded himself after witnessing his wife’s suicide. He now devotes himself to his own punishment and plans to walk the earth as an outcast until the end of his days: “I care not for thy counsel or thy praise; For with what eyes could I have e’er beheld My honoured father in the shades below, Or my unhappy mother, both destroyed By me? This punishment is worse than death, *Greek Comedy Comedy (from Greek komos, meaning “revel”) was presented competitively in Athens from 486 BCE onwards at the Lenaea winter festival. The Greek comedy fused much earlier traditions of popular entertainment, mime, phallic rites, and revelry in honour of Dionysus. *MELODRAMA Melodrama was the popular-culture manifestation of Romanticism and as such was the most poular dramatic form of the 19th c. (e.g. Dion Boucicault’s The Octoroon ). Melodrama is a play that utilizes music extensively. But the utilization of music is not the only factor in melodrama, what really makes it melodrama is its portrayal of the protagonist and the antagonist. The protagonist suffers a lot but triumphs in the end while the antagonist suffers. Therefore, it has a strict poetic justice: the evil people were punished, and the good were rewarded. *REALIST DRAMA Realism was a 19th-century theatrical movement, seeking to portray real life on the stage. Stanislavski was a committed follower of realism throughout his working life. *Epic Theatre Characteristics of Epic Theatre Main Practitioner was Bertolt Brecht (1920s) — Form of didactic drama presenting a series of loosely connected scenes — Avoids illusion and often interrupts the story line to address the audience directly with analysis, argument, or documentation *The Theatre of the Absurd: Main Features Absence of a real story or plot. No action since all actions are insignificant. Vagueness about time, place and the characters. The value of language is reduced; in fact, what happens on the stage transcends, and often contradicts, the words spoken by the characters. Extensive use of pauses, silences, miming and farcical situations which reflect a sense of anguish. Incoherent babbling makes up the dialogue. *The Theatre of the Absurd: main themes The sense of man’s alienation. The cruelty of human life. The absence or the futility of objectives. The meaninglessness of man’s struggle. From «Waiting for Godot» by Samuel Beckett Estragon Let’s go. Vladimir We can’t. Estragon Why not? Vladimir We’re waiting for Godot. Estragon [Despairingly] Ah! REFERENCES Cuddon, J. A. (1999). The penguin dictionary of literary terms and literary theory. London: Penguin Books. Abrams, M. H., & Harpham, G. G. (2009). A glossary of literary terms. Boston: Cengage Learning. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/introliterature/ https://literarydevices.net/genre/ Figurative Language  Literal vs. Figurative Language Literal– taking the meaning of words in their primary and nonfigurative sense  Literal vs. Figurative Language Literal Language – You say exactly what you mean. You make no comparison, and you do not exaggerate or understate the situation.  Figurative Language – Language which uses figures of speech; for example, metaphor, simile, alliteration. Figurative language must be distinguished from literal language.  Figurative Language – You DON’T say exactly what you mean. You DO compare, exaggerate, and understate the situation. You use similes, metaphors, hyperboles, and other figures of speech to make your writing more exciting.  Literal or Figurative??? 1. The water was rising in the river because of the rain. 2. Her teeth are like stars because they come out at night. 3. When she sings her voice is like velvet. 4. Half of the class did not complete the assignment. 5. I’m so hungry I could eat a horse. 6. Mike was so angry that steam was coming out of his ears. 7. The zebras cried when the wise old elephant died. 8. I’ve told you a million times to clean up your room.  Literal or Figurative??? 1. The snow was coming down by the bucket-fulls. 2. Mary is always dressed neatly. 3. Native Americans believed that the sun was a god. 4. These bags are so heavy my arms are falling off. 5. Mrs. Brown sometimes gives us too much homework. *the bottom drops/falls out (of something) =people stop buying or using the products of a particular industry Exm: The bottom has fallen out of the travel market. Types of Figurative Language Simile Metaphor Hyperbole Alliteration Personification Onomatopoeia Onomatopoeia Oxymoron  Simile comparing two unlike things using the words “like” or “as”.  A figure of speech in which one thing is likened to another, in such away as to clarify and enhance an image. It is an explicit comparison (as opposed to the metaphor, where the comparison is implicit) recognizable by the use of the words 'like'or 'as'.  Simile Her eyes were like stars. Susan is as gentle as a kitten. I am hungry as a horse. You run like a rabbit. She is happy like a child. He is sneaky as a snake.  Exercise Find out the similes used in the following sentences. He swims like a fish. His eyes are as blue as the ocean. His feet are as big as boats.  Metaphor A figure of speech in which one thing is described in terms of another. A comparison is usually implicit; whereas in simile (q.a.) it is explicit.  Metaphor comparing two unlike things without using «like» or «as». Calling one thing, another. Saying one thing is something else.  Metaphor He’s a lion when he fights. Her eyes were sparkling emeralds. My love is a red, red rose.  Exercise Find out the metaphors used in the following sentences. The road was a ribbon wrapped through the desert. The clown was a feather floating away.  Hyperbole A figure of speech which contains an exaggeration for emphasis  Hyperbole an exaggeration so dramatic, no one could believe it; overstate to emphasize a point.  Hyperbole Such statements are not literally true, but people make them to sound impressive or to emphasize something, such as a feeling, effort, or reaction.  Hyperbole I haven't seen you for ages. This bag weighs a ton! I’ve told you a million times to clean up your room!  Alliteration A figure of speech in which consonants, especially at the beginning of words are repeated.  Alliteration (continued) Example Peter Piper picked a pickled pepper. The first letter, p, is a consonant. Its sound is repeated many times. Stan the strong surfer saved several swimmers on Saturday. Tiny Tommy Thomson takes toy trucks to Timmy’s on Tuesday.  Alliteration in Poetry A flea and a fly in a flue Were imprisoned, so what could they do? Said the fly, “Let us flee!” “Let us fly,” said the flea; So they flew through a flaw in the flue.  Personification the attribution of human qualities to inanimate objects  Personification giving human characteristics to things that are not human. The angry flood waters slapped the house. The sun smiled down on us.  Example This example is from Sylvia Plath’s «The Moon and the Yew Tree»: «The moon is no door. It is a face in its own right, White as a knuckle and terribly upset. It drags the sea after it like a dark crime; it is quiet»  Onomatopoeia The formation and use of words to imitate sounds. It is a figure of speech in which the sound reflects the sense.  Onomatopoeia the use of a word to describe or imitate a natural sound made by an object or action. Words that sound like what they mean. tweet, pow zoom tweet buzz hiss  Example “The moan of doves in immemorial elms, And murmuring of innumerable bees…” (Come Down, O Maid, by Alfred Lord Tennyson) “I’m getting married in the morning! Ding dong! the bells are gonna chime.” (Get Me to the Church on Time, by Alan Jay Lerner and Frederick Loewe)  Oxymoron A figure of speech which combines apparently contradictory words and meanings for a special effect.  Oxymoron words or phrases in which contradictory or opposite terms are used together baby grand open secret act naturally adult child  Example «Why then, O brawling love, O loving hate, O anything of nothing first create; O heavy lightness, serious vanity, Misshapen chaos of well-seeming forms, Feather of lead, bright smoke, cold fire, sick health, Still-waking sleep, that is not what it is!» (Romeo and Juliet, Shakespeare)  Personification, simile, metaphor, oxymoron, hyperbole, alliteration, or onomatopoeia??? 1. The street cars are like frosted cakes covered with snowflakes. 2. The west wind dances down the road. 3. A train is a dragon that roars through the dark. 4. The band played to a small crowd at the concert. 5. She’s as tiny as a mouse. 6. Her blonde hair shined like the sun. 7. Susan suddenly stretched slowly. KEY: Personification, simile, metaphor, oxymoron, hyperbole, alliteration, or onomatopoeia??? 1. The street cars are like frosted cakes covered with snowflakes. simile 2. The west wind dances down the road.personification 3. A train is a dragon that roars through the metaphor dark. 4. The band played to a small crowd at the concert. oxymoron 5. She’s as tiny as a mouse. simile 6. Her blonde hair shined like the sun. simile 7. Susan suddenly stretched slowly. alliteration  Practice Test 1. The lightweight fighter lost so much weight, he looked as thin as a rail. 2. Polly Peters positively played Ping-Pong. 3. When the pitcher finished nine innings, he was hungry enough to eat a horse. 4. “Crack” went the bat as the pitcher hit a home run. 5. The ice in the arena was as smooth as glass. 6. The kite drank the wind and laughed across the sky. 7. The new kittens enjoyed being alone together. 8. The trophy glistened like gold in the sun during the awards ceremony. 9. Happy Harry handles handsprings horribly. 10. The water was a glove that enveloped the swimmer’s body.  Practice Test KEY 1. The lightweight fighter lost so much weight, simile he looked as thin as a rail. 2. Polly Peters positively played Ping-Pong. alliteration 3. When the pitcher finished nine innings, he was hungry enough to eat a horse. hyperbole 4. “Crack” went the bat as the pitcher hit a home run. onomatopoeia 5. The ice in the arena was as smooth as glass. simile 6. The kite drank the wind and laughed across the sky. personification 7. The new kittens enjoyed being alone together. oxymoron 8. The trophy glistened like gold in the sun during the awards ceremony. simile 9. Happy Harry handles handsprings horribly. alliteration 10. The water was a glove that enveloped the swimmer’s body. metaphor  Figurative Language Quiz 1. The hockey player lost his control when the puck ran across the ice. 2. The snow on the ski hill was powdered sugar. 3. The coach was as upset as a lion when his team lost the game. 4. Freddy French fired five fabulous free throws. 5. The snowmobile was a rocket in the newly fallen snow. 6. The running shoes danced as the runner neared the finish line. 7. “Bang!” went the gun as the race started. 8. Steven boxes in the light-heavyweight division. 9. Spotlighting several special sports shows seems significant for TV. 10. After the marathon, the runner was thirsty enough to drink the ocean. 11. The golf ball walked gently into the ninth hole. 12. The team members remained as cool as cucumbers after the game.  Quiz Key 1. The hockey player lost his control when the puck ran across the ice. personification 2. The snow on the ski hill was powdered sugar. metaphor 3. The coach was as upset as a lion when his team lost the game. simile alliteration 4. Freddy French fired five fabulous free throws. 5. The snowmobile was a rocket in the newly fallen snow.metaphor 6. The running shoes danced as the runner neared the finish line. personification 7. “Bang!” went the gun as the race started. onomatopoeia 8. Steven boxes in the light-heavyweight division. oxymoron 9. Spotlighting several special sports shows seems significant for TV. alliteration 10. After the marathon, the runner was thirsty enough to drink the ocean. hyperbole 11. The golf ball walked gently into the ninth hole. personification 12. The team members remained as cool as cucumbers after the game. simile  The Road Not Taken by Robert Frost 1874 - 1963 Two roads diverged in a yellow wood, And both that morning equally lay And sorry I could not travel both In leaves no step had trodden black. And be one traveler, long I stood Oh, I kept the first for another day! And looked down one as far as I could Yet knowing how way leads on to way To where it bent in the undergrowth; I doubted if I should ever come back. Then took the other, as just as fair, I shall be telling this with a sigh And having perhaps the better claim Somewhere ages and ages hence: Because it was grassy and wanted wear; Two roads diverged in a wood, and I, Though as for that, the passing there I took the one less traveled by, Had worn them really about the same, And that has made all the difference. HOMEWORK: Look at this picture of The Boating Party, by Mary Cassatt, from the National Gallery of Art. Write a paragraph describing what you see. Be sure to include at least five types of figurative language in your description. Mary Cassatt The Boating Party, 1893/1894 Chester Dale Collection 1963.10.94  REFERENCES - Cuddon, J. A. (1999). The penguin dictionary of literary terms and literary theory. London: Penguin Books. https://www.effinghamschools.com/cms/lib/GA01000314/Centric ity/Domain/718/figurativelanguagepowerpoint1.ppt http://www.lcps.org/cms/lib4/VA01000195/Centricity/Domain/4 040/fig%20lang.hnors.ppt Translating Prose Fiction: Principles and Strategies  Initially, the translation of literary works - novels, short stories, plays, poems, etc. - is considered a literary recreation in its own right. Evidently, ‘prose-translation’ is the translation of novels, essays, fiction, short stories, comedy, folk tale, hagiography, works of criticism, science fiction etc. It is a type of literary creativeness where the written-work of one language is re-created in another.  We have to agree that the translators also have to face lots of difficulties when it comes to translating prose. When the source and target languages belong to different cultural groups, the first problem faced by the prose-translator is finding terms in his or her own language that express the highest level of faithfulness possible to the meaning of certain words. For example, there are some words that are related to typical fabrics, cookery specialties, or jobs; they also represent specific culture and the translators should be very careful in translating such words. They also find it difficult to render ambiguous puns. Similarly, the titles of stories and novels provide many examples of such ambiguities, which are hard or even impossible to translate. A literary translator must also be skilled enough to translate feelings, cultural nuances, humour and other delicate elements of a piece of work. In fact, the translators do not translate meanings but the messages. That is why, the text must be considered in its totality. Alternatively, Peter Newmark (1988) delineates translation as “rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text” (p. 5). A further point is that there are examples in which the source text contains ‘facets’ that are advocated by Lawrence Venuti (1995): “…discursive variations, experimenting with archaism, slang, literary allusion and convention” (p. 310) Language has more than a communicative, or societal and connective purpose in literary-prose translation. The problems in ‘prose-translation’ are within the area of art and they depend on its particular laws. The translation of literary prose is different from literary creativity because its existence depends on the existence of an object of translation, a work to be translated. Walter Benjamin (1996) presents the idea that a translation does not indicate an original text, it has no relationship with communication, its purpose is not to carry meaning, etc. The work of writing does not merely imitate or copy, but rather strives to extract and convey the essence of the previous text. He shows the relationship between the supposed original and translation by using the symbol of a tangent: translation is like a straight line or curve, which touches the circle (i.e. the original) in one single point and follows its own way later: Figure 1. The Relationship between the Original Text and the Translated Version At the very beginning, the translator keeps both the Source Language (S.L) and Target Language (T.L) in mind and tries to translate carefully. But, it becomes very difficult for a translator to decode the whole textbook literally; therefore, he takes the help of his own view and endeavours to translate accordingly. So, translation can be ‘servitude’ and ‘freedom’ (Vieira, 1999: 111). It is broadly accepted that ‘the original text’, ‘the translated version’, ‘the language of the original’ and ‘the language of the translation’ are constantly transformed in space and time. Nonetheless, numerous publishers, reviewers and readers accept a translated text if it is fluently readable, if it reflects the foreign author’s individuality or purpose or the fundamental sense of the foreign book - that the translation is not a translation in reality, but the original. translation-equivalence-concept The idea swings between literal and free, faithful and beautiful, exact and natural translation, depending on whether the bias was to be in favour of the author or the reader, the source or target language of the text (Newmark, 1988). However, the “dynamic equivalent translation” is very important. The translation theorists view dynamic equivalence as a translation code; according to this very code, a translator looks for rendering the meaning of the original in such a way that the T.L readers will definitely enjoy the text as is done usually by the source text readers. Both Eugene A. Nida and C. Taber (1982) argue that Frequently, the form of the original text is changed; but as long as the change follows the rules of back transformation in the source language, of contextual consistency in the transfer, and of transformation in the receptor language, the message is preserved and the translation is faithful. (p. 200) It is evidently mentioned by them that the dynamic equivalence in translation is far more than mere correct communication of information. Nida says that the definition of a dynamic equivalent translation is to describe it as “the closest natural equivalent to the source-language message”. 1. Equivalent, which refers to the source-language message, 2. Natural, which refers to the receptor language, and 3. Closest, which “binds the two orientations together on the basis of the highest degree of speculation”. Problems in Translating Literary Prose Translation is a challenging activity and there are few difficulties that emerge throughout the translation process since every language portrays the world in diverse way and has its own grammar structure, grammar rules and syntax variance/difference. As Zhongde (1991) says: «The difficulty in translation just lies in the fact that both the content and the style are already existent inthe original and as a result, you will have to do your best to reproduce them as they are in quite a different language.» (p. 7) The most particular problems that the translators face include- illegible text, missing references, several constructions of grammar, dialect terms and neologisms, irrationally vague terminology, inexplicable acronyms and abbreviations, untranslatability, particular cultural references etc. Nonetheless, there are some theorists who think that ‘literal translation’ is not possible. They present three main reasons supporting their stance: 1. Because a particular word in one language often contains meanings that involve several words in another language. For example, the English word ‘wall’ might be rendered into German as Wand (inside wall) or as Mauer (exterior wall), 2. Because grammatical particles (verb tenses, singular/dual/plural, case markers etc.) are not available in every language, and 3. Because idioms of one language and culture may be utterly perplexing to speakers from another language and culture. Catford (1965) simply puts forward that translation is the “substitution or replacement of textual materials in one language by equivalent textual material in another language” (p. 20). But, his linguistic theory of translation was not (and is not) accepted liberally by many. Snell-Hornby (1988) argues that the perception of equivalence in translation is nothing but a ‘delusion’. Unfortunately, many prose-translators fail to understand that a literary text is a combination of a complex set of systems that exist in a dialectical relationship with other sets outside its boundaries; this kind of failure has regularly led them to concentrate on particular parts of a text at the cost of others. It seems to be easier for the (careless) prose-translator to consider content as separable from form. Moreover, the prose-translators might find it very difficult to translate proper names. For instance, Russian proper names generate misunderstanding in Russian texts. In this connection, a paragraph from Cathy Porter’s translated version of Alexandra Kollontai’s (1977) Love of Worker Bees is worth mentioning: «Russians have a first (‘Christian’) name, a patronymic and a surname. The customary mode of address is first name plus patronymic, thus, Vasilisa Dementevna, Maria Semenovna. There are more intimate abbreviations of first names which have subtly affectionate, patronizing or friendly overtones. So for instance Vasilisa becomes Vasya, Vasyuk, and Vladimir becomes Volodya, Volodka, Volodechka, Volya.» (p. 226) However, the prose-translator has the right to differ organically, to be independent, if that independence is followed for the benefit of the original in order to reproduce it as a living work. We should also shed light on a very different, interesting and important aspect of translation itself to realise the depth and exact value of translation. Chinua Achebe’s (1958) early work of fiction should express this point: «Mr. Smith said to his interpreter: Tell them to go away from here. This is the house of God and I will not live to see it desecrated. Okeke interpreted wisely to the spirits of Umuofia: The white man says he is happy you have come to him with your grievances like friends. He will be happy if you leave the matter in his hands.» (p. 134) Surely, this is a planned mistranslation. At this point, the translator figure has told a lie; though he has lied to avoid a quarrel, he is not only cheating himself but also has turned into a traitor or cheat in the readers’ eyes. This example is enough to emphasise the need to change the idea of translation; the translator should not distort the meanings of the content that he is translating; he should be honest. Solutions for the Translators of Literary Prose The prose-translators should start with the careful adherence to the following principles: 1. a great understanding of the language, written and verbal, from which he is translating i.e. the source language; 2. an excellent control of the language into which he is translating i.e. the target language; 3. awareness of the subject matter of the book being translated; 4. a deep knowledge of the etymological and idiomatic correlates between the two languages; 5. a delicate common sense of when to metaphrase or ‘translate literally’ and when to paraphrase, in order to guarantee exact rather than fake equivalents between the source- and target-language texts. According to Nico Wiersema (2004), cultures are getting closer and closer and this is something that the translators need to take into account. Now, the problems in translating literary prose can be solved much if the prose-translator is both bilingual and bicultural. Thierry (1978) states that ‘perfect bilingual’ (p. 145) implies two things: 1. One speaks both the languages consistently well. 2. One has two mother tongues. Wiersema’s view is very much similar to the philosophy of Nida who believes that translation tries to connect a wide cultural gap and it is not possible for the prose- translators to remove all the marks of the foreign setting. According to him, it is normal that the source and receptor languages may possibly represent very different cultures that may include many basic themes and descriptions, which we cannot ‘naturalise’ by the process of translating. By entering the S.L cultural elements: 1. the text will be more ‘fluently-readable’ (no stops), 2. the text continues to be more foreign, more distant, 3. the translator comes nearer to the source culture, and 4. a more authentic picture of the source culture appears before the reader of the target texts. (Wiersema, 2004: Volume 8, No. 1) As indicated by Nida, naturalness of expression in the receptor language is mainly a problem of co-suitability. According to his model, the usual process of translation looks like the following: Therefore, the principles, managed by the translator, go further than the exclusively linguistic, and decoding as well as recoding processes take place. Ultimately, it all depends on what the translator, or more often, the publisher wants to achieve with a certain translation. Moreover, Mona Baker categorises equivalence in the following manners: 1. Word Level and above Word Level Equivalence means that the translator should pay attention to a number of factors when considering a single word, such as number, gender and tense (Anthony, 1992: 11-12). 2. Grammatical Equivalence, when indicating the variety of grammatical classes (number, tense and aspects, voice, person and gender) across languages. 3. Textual Equivalence, when indicating the equivalence between S.L text and T.L text concerning information and consistency. Three main factors will guide the translator’s decision, i.e. ‘the text type’, ‘the purpose of the translation’, and ‘the target audience’. 4. Pragmatic Equivalence, when indicating implicatures and policies of evasion all through the translation procedure. “Implicature signifies what is suggested in an utterance.” (Blackburn, 1996: 188-89). The role of the translator is to re-establish the author’s purpose in another culture in such a way that facilitates the ‘target culture (T.C) readers’ to comprehend it clearly. Vinay and Darbelnet (1995) view equivalence-oriented translation as a process that “replicates the same situation as in the original, whilst using completely different wording” (p. 342). According to them, equivalence is the perfect technique when the translator is dealing with idioms, proverbs, clichés, nominal or adjectival phrases and the onomatopoeia of animal sounds. Additionally, the prose-translators should follow the principles presented by Hillaire Belloc (1931): 1. The translator must regard the work as an integral unit and translate in sections. 2. The translator must decode ‘idiom by idiom’. 3. The translator ought to translate ‘intention by intention’ hinting the heaviness a particular term might contain in a meticulous situation in the S.L that would be asymmetrical if translated exactly into the T.L. 4. Belloc warns against les faux amis, those words or formations that may possibly come out to match up in both S.L and T.L but actually do not. For example, ‘demander- to ask’, translated incorrectly as to ‘demand’. 5. The translator is supposed to ‘alter courageously’. 6. The translator must never overstate. Besides, the translator must not forget the stylistic and syntactical requirements of the T.L. Many theorists believe that the translator has the right to change the text much in the translation procedure. In fact, the translator has the liberty to do it intentionally because, while translating, he has to keep the T.L stylistic and idiomatic norms in mind. If he does so, then the T.L readers will be able to enjoy the text more. Likewise, Susan Bassnett believes that the shift of emphasis from the original to translation is reflected in discussions on the ‘visibility’ of the translator. Whereas, Lawrence Venuti supports a ‘translator-centred’ translation. However, the prose-translators should not worry much about the ‘loss of meaning’. it is generally thought that we constantly lose something in translation; conversely, we can also gain something from it. As Susan Bassnett (1980) mentions: It is again an indication of the low status of translation that so much time should have been spent on discussing what is lost in the transfer of a text from S.L to T.L whilst ignoring what can also be gained, for the translator can at times enrich or clarify the S.L text as a direct result of the translation process. Moreover, what is often seen as ‘lost’ from the S.L context may be replaced in the T.L context. (p. 30) EXERCISE 1 Considering the topics we have discussed in class, translate a passage of English literary prose of your choice into Turkish. EXERCISE 2 Considering the topics we have discussed in class, translate a passage of Turkish literary prose of your choice into English. REFERENCE - “Translating Literary Prose: Problems and Solutions” by Haque in International Journal of English Linguistics, pp. 97-111 Translating Prose Fiction  *Analysis of “The Last Leaf”(1907) by O. Henry  O. Henry's trademark is his witty, plot-twisting, surprise endings. His stories expressed the effect of coincidence on character through humour and irony.  “The Last Leaf”  Historical Context: *In the early twentieth century, New York experienced rapid population growth, and as the story shows, urbanization and overcrowding also led to poor living conditions, which in turn led to a high rate of sickness and disease. *The early 20th century was also a time of upheaval in the art world, as artists began moving away from realism (like Behrman’s illusionist painting of the leaf) and towards more experimental styles, such as Cubism. *“The Last Leaf”(1907)  Characters:  Joanna (“Johnsy”)  Sue  Behrman  Doctor *“The Last Leaf”(1907)  Setting:  Greenwich Village home for promising artists, writers and musicians (Edgar Allan Poe, Walt Whitman and Mark Twain lived in the village in 1800s) poor living conditions, shortage of food, and exposure to cold and sickness a place where gay and lesbian community can flourish *“TheLast Leaf”(1907)  Themes: *Health ✓ O. Henry suggests that physical health is strongly related to hope for the future. For the artists in “The Last Leaf,” their hope for the future centers on fulfilling their life’s purpose: painting a masterpiece. *Gender and Sexuality ✓ “The Last Leaf” depicts two women who lead unconventional lives. Johnsy’s and Sue’s decision to build a life together challenges traditional gender norms, particularly the expectation that early twentieth-century women should devote all their time and efforts to their husband and children. By devoting themselves to each other and to art instead, Johnsy and Sue form a new, alternative model of a family. ✓ Some critics have advanced the view that Sue and Johnsy are romantically involved (sexual perversion). At the very least, they clearly share a close intimacy that exists outside the more conventional roles for women in the period: they are unmarried, live together, and share a home life that does not involve men or caring for children. *“TheLast Leaf”(1907)  Conflicts: a) Character vs society Johnsy, Sue X Patriarchal society and poor social conditions b) Character vs character Sue X Doctor Sue X Behrman Sue X Johnsy *“TheLast Leaf”(1907) c) Character versus self Behrman X lack of motivation, driving force Johnsy X hopelessness, lack of motivation, driving force d) Character versus nature Johnsy and Behrman X pneumonia, cold weather (cold, rain and wind) EXERCISE  Translate the following quotations taken from «The Last Leaf» into Turkish.  «In a small part of the city west of Washington Square, the streets have gone wild. They turn in different directions. They are broken into small pieces called “places.” One street goes across itself one or two times. A painter once discovered something possible and valuable about this street. Suppose a painter had some painting materials for which he had not paid. Suppose he had no money. Suppose a man came to get the money. The man might walk down that street and suddenly meet himself coming back, without having received a cent!»  «Washington Meydanı'nın batısındaki şehrin küçük bir bölümünde caddeler çılgına dönmüş durumda. Değişik yönlere sapıyorlar. “ Mekanlar ” adı verilen küçük parçalara bölünmüşler. Bir cadde bir ya da iki kez kendi üzerinden geçiyor. Bir zamanlar bir ressam bu caddeyle ilgili muhtemel ve değerli bir şey keşfetmişti. Düşünün ki bir ressamın elinde parasını ödemediği bazı resim malzemeleri vardı. Düşünün ki hiç parası yoktu. Düşünün ki parayı almak için bir adam geldi. Adam o cadde boyunca yürüyebilir ve aniden tek kuruş almadan geri dönerken kendini bulabilirdi!»  Comment on the following translation: «Washington Meydanı'nın batısındaki küçük mıntıkada, caddeler acayip şekilde' sokak' denilen kollara ayrılıp, tuhaf köşeler ve üçgenler oluştururlar. Bir cadde diğeriyle iki, üç yerde kesişir. Vaktiyle hiç tablo satamamış ressamın biri burada iyi bir fırsat yakaladı. Muhtemelen caddeyi geçerken aniden yağlı boya tablolara para harcamaya hevesli bir koleksiyoncuyla karşılaşmıştı.» (çeviren: Müjde Dural)  «Sue and Johnsy lived at the top of a building with three floors. One of these young women came from Maine, the other from California. They had met at a restaurant on Eighth Street. There they discovered that they liked the same kind of art, the same kind of food, and the same kind of clothes. So they decided to live and work together.»  «Sue ve Johnsy üç katlı bir binanın en üst katında yaşıyorlardı. Bu genç kadınlardan biri Maine'den, diğeri Kaliforniya'dan gelmişti. Sekizinci Cadde'deki bir restoranda tanışmışlardı. Bu restoranda aynı tür sanattan, aynı tür yemekten ve aynı tür kıyafetlerden hoşlandıklarını keşfetmişlerdi. Bu yüzden birlikte yaşamaya ve çalışmaya karar verdiler.»  «Toward winter a cold stranger entered Greenwich Village. No one could see him. He walked around touching one person here and another there with his icy fingers. He was a bad sickness. Doctors called him Pneumonia. On the east side of the city he hurried, touching many people; but in the narrow streets of Greenwich Village he did not move so quickly.»  «Kışa doğru Greenwich Village'a soğuk bir yabancı geldi. Hiç kimse onu göremiyordu. Buz gibi parmaklarıyla bir ona bir buna dokunarak dolaşıyordu./Buz gibi parmaklarıyla bir oraya bir buraya dokunarak dolaşıyordu. Kötü bir hastalıktı. Doktorlar ona Pnömoni diyordu./Doktorlar ona Zatürre diyordu. Şehrin doğu yakasında hızla ilerliyor, birçok insana dokunuyordu; ama Greenwich Village'ın dar sokaklarında o kadar hızlı ilerleyemiyordu.»  «One morning the busy doctor spoke to Sue alone in the hall, where Johnsy could not hear.  “She has a very small chance,” he said. “She has a chance, if she wants to live. If people don’t want to live, I can’t do much for them. Your little lady has decided that she is not going to get well. Is there something that is troubling her?”  “She always wanted to go to Italy and paint a picture of the Bay of Naples,” said Sue.  “Paint! Not paint. Is there anything worth being troubled about? A man?”»  «Bir sabah yoğun çalışan doktor, Johnsy'nin duyamayacağı bir yerde, salonda Sue ile tek başına konuştu.  “Çok küçük bir şansı var,” dedi. “Yaşamak istiyorsa bir şansı var. İnsanlar yaşamak istemiyorlarsa, pek bir şey yapamam. Küçük hanımınız iyileşmeyeceğine karar verdi. Onu rahatsız eden bir şey mi var?”  “Her zaman İtalya'ya gidip Napoli Körfezi'nin resmini yapmak isterdi,” dedi Sue.  “Resim! Resim değil. Üzülmeye değer bir şey var mı? Bir erkek mesela?”»  «Sue began to work. As she worked she heard a low sound, again and again. She went quickly to the bedside.  Johnsy’s eyes were open wide. She was looking out the window and counting—counting back.  “Twelve,” she said; and a little later, “Eleven”; and then, “Ten,” and, “Nine”; and then, “Eight,” and, “Seven,” almost together.  Sue looked out the window. What was there to count? There was only the side wall of the next house, a short distance away. The wall had no window. An old, old tree grew against the wall. The cold breath of winter had already touched it. Almost all its leaves had fallen from its dark branches.»  «Sue çalışmaya başladı. Çalışırken devamlı olarak cılız bir ses duydu. Hemen yatağın yanına gitti.  Johnsy'nin gözleri sonuna kadar açıktı. Pencereden dışarı bakıyor ve geriye doğru sayıyordu.  “On iki,” dedi; biraz sonra 'On bir'; sonra 'On,' ve 'Dokuz'; sonra 'Sekiz,' ve 'Yedi,' neredeyse aynı anda.  Sue pencereden dışarı baktı. Sayacak ne vardı ki? Sadece biraz ötedeki evin yan duvarı vardı. Duvarda pencere yoktu. Yaşlı mı yaşlı bir ağaç duvara yaslanmıştı. Kışın soğuk nefesi ona çoktan dokunmuştu. Neredeyse tüm yaprakları dökülmüştü kara dallarından.»  «“Leaves. On the tree. When the last one falls, I must go, too. I’ve known that for three days. Didn’t the doctor tell you?”  “Oh, I never heard of such a thing,” said Sue. “It doesn’t have any sense in it. What does an old tree have to do with you? Or with your getting well? And you used to love that tree so much. Don’t be a little fool. The doctor told me your chances for getting well. He told me this morning. He said you had very good chances! Try to eat a little now. And then I’ll go back to work. And then I can sell my picture, and  then I can buy something more for you to eat to make you strong.”»  «“Yapraklar. Ağacın üzerinde. Sonuncusu düştüğünde, ben de gitmeliyim. Bu gerçeği üç gündür biliyorum. Doktor sana söylemedi mi?”“Böyle bir şeyi hiç duymadım,” dedi Sue. “Bunun hiçbir mantıklı yanı yok. Yaşlı bir ağacın seninle ne ilgisi var? Ya da senin iyileşmenle? Üstelik o ağacı eskiden çok severdin. Küçük bir budala olma. Doktor bana iyileşme şansının olduğunu söyledi. Bu sabah söyledi. Şansının çok yüksek olduğunu söyledi! Şimdi biraz yemeye çalış. Sonra işe geri döneceğim. Sonra resmimi satabilirim ve seni güçlendirecek daha fazla şey satın alabilirim.»  «Old Behrman was a painter who lived on the first floor of their house. He was past sixty. He had had no success as a painter. For forty years he had painted, without ever painting a good picture. He had always talked of painting a great picture, a masterpiece, but he had never yet started it.  He got a little money by letting others paint pictures of him. He drank too much. He still talked of his great masterpiece. And he believed that it was his special duty to do everything possible to help Sue and Johnsy.»  «İhtiyar Behrman evlerinin birinci katında yaşayan bir ressamdı. Altmışını geçmişti. Ressam olarak hiç başarılı olamamıştı. Kırk yıl boyunca resim yapmış ama hiç iyi bir resim yapamamıştı. Her zaman muhteşem bir resim, bir başyapıt yapmaktan söz etmişti ama buna hiç kalkışmamıştı.  Başkalarının onun resimlerini yapmasına müsaade ederek biraz para kazanıyordu. Çok fazla içiyordu. Hâlâ büyük başyapıtından bahsediyordu. Ayrıca Sue ve Johnsy'ye yardım etmek için mümkün olan her şeyi yapmanın kendisine düşen özel bir görev olduğuna inanıyordu.»  «When it was light enough the next morning, Johnsy again commanded that she be allowed to see.  The leaf was still there.  Johnsy lay for a long time looking at it. And then she called to Sue, who was cooking something for her to eat.  “I’ve been a bad girl, Sue,” said Johnsy. “Something has made that last leaf stay there to show me how bad I was. It is wrong to want to die.  I’ll try to eat now. But first bring me a looking-glass, so that I can see myself. And then I’ll sit up and watch you cook.”»  «Ertesi sabah hava yeterince aydınlandığında, Johnsy tekrar etrafı görmesine izin verilmesini buyurdu.  Yaprak hâlâ oradaydı.  Johnsy uzun süre yatıp ona baktı. Sonra kendisine yiyecek bir şeyler pişirmekte olan Sue'ya seslendi.  “Kötü bir kızdım, Sue,” dedi Johnsy. “Bir şey bana ne kadar kötü olduğumu göstermek için o son yaprağın orada kalmasını sağladı. Ölmek istemek yanlış bir şey.  Şimdi yemeye çalışacağım. Ama önce bana bir ayna getir ki kendimi görebileyim. Sonra da oturup yemek yapmanı izleyeceğim.”»  «“His shoes and his clothes were wet and as cold as ice. Everyone wondered where he had been. The night had been so cold and wild.  “And then they found some things. There was a light that he had taken outside. And there were his materials for painting. There was paint, green paint and yellow paint. And—  “Look out the window, dear, at the last leaf on the wall. Didn’t you wonder why it never moved when the wind was blowing? Oh, my dear, it is Behrman’s great masterpiece—he painted it there the night that the last leaf fell.”»  «“Ayakkabıları ve giysileri ıslaktı ve buz gibi soğuktu. Herkes onun nerede olduğunu merak ediyordu. Gece çok soğuk ve sert geçmişti.  “Ve sonrasında bazı şeyler buldular. Dışarıya koyduğu bir ışık vardı. Ayrıca resim yapmak için kullandığı malzemeler de oradaydı. Boya, yeşil boya ve sarı boya vardı. Ve-  “Pencereden dışarı bak canım, duvardaki son yaprağa. Rüzgar eserken neden hiç kımıldamadı diye merak etmedin mi? Oh, canım, bu Behrman'ın muhteşem şaheseri - onu oraya son yaprağın düştüğü gece çizdi.»» * “Sevda Dolu Bir Yaz,” Füruzan  Füruzan İs one of Turkey's most popular and critically acclaimed writers, most well known for her short stories, Her first book, Parasız Yatılı (1972), was awarded the Sait Faik Prize, Turkey's top prize for short stories, and her work has received numerous other awards. She is highly regarded for her sensitive characterizations, often of the poor and of women and children, and for her depictions of Turkish immigrants abroad. The film made from Füruzan's book, Benim Sinemalarım, was screened at the 1990 Cannes Film Festival. Füruzan was bom in Istanbul in 1935. Her works have been translated into German, Russian, Dutch, Swedish, Arabic and Persian. Füruzan’s Style  Füruzan is known for her empathetic and socially conscious writing style. She often focuses on marginalized individuals, particularly women, immigrants, and the urban poor, exploring their struggles with sensitivity and depth. Her narrative is typically characterized by vivid descriptions, a strong sense of place, and intricate character development, creating an intimate portrayal of Turkish society.  Füruzan's prose is poetic, rich in detail, and often employs a realistic and sometimes nostalgic tone. Her stories tend to capture the human condition, with an emphasis on themes such as poverty, identity, displacement, and the complexities of family relationships. She presents her characters with empathy, showcasing their resilience amidst hardship. Her works, such as the short story collection Parasız Yatılı (Boarding School Without Tuition), reflect both the social issues of her time and timeless, universal experiences. "Sevda Dolu Bir Yaz"  "Sevda Dolu Bir Yaz" (translated as A Summer Full of Love) is a collection of short stories by Füruzan that captures the lives and emotions of ordinary people in Türkiye, often during the backdrop of the summer season. Each story is imbued with a sense of nostalgia, and Füruzan delves into the complexities of human relationships, focusing on love, longing, and loss.  The characters in these stories are depicted with great depth and empathy, from children experiencing the bittersweet nature of growing up to adults grappling with unfulfilled desires and the passage of time. Füruzan's detailed and evocative descriptions bring to life the settings, making the reader feel the warmth of the summer and the emotional landscapes of her characters.  Sevda Dolu Bir Yaz showcases Füruzan's ability to portray the intimate moments and emotional nuances of everyday life, highlighting the struggles and hopes of people from different walks of life. Themes:  Some prominent themes in the book include:  Love and Relationships: The title itself suggests a focus on love, and throughout the stories, Füruzan explores different forms of love—romantic, familial, and platonic. She examines how these relationships shape the characters' lives and emotions.  Childhood and Youth: Several stories depict the experiences of children and young people, highlighting their innocence, dreams, and the challenges they face. Füruzan often portrays the vulnerability of young characters as they navigate the complexities of adulthood.  Social Class and Poverty: A recurring theme in Füruzan's work is the disparity between social classes. In "Sevda Dolu Bir Yaz," she depicts characters from different socioeconomic backgrounds, focusing on the struggles of the poor and the challenges they face in trying to improve their lives.  Women and Gender Roles: Füruzan often centers her stories on the experiences of women, highlighting their resilience in the face of societal expectations and constraints. She addresses themes of gender inequality and the limited opportunities available to women in Turkish society.  Nostalgia and Memory: The stories in this collection are rich in nostalgia, often reflecting on past experiences and memories. Füruzan captures the sense of longing for a time that has passed, and her characters frequently reflect on their past choices and relationships.  Migration and Displacement: Füruzan also touches on themes of migration and displacement, portraying characters who struggle with their sense of belonging. Whether moving within Türkiye or abroad, her characters often deal with feelings of alienation and the search for a new identity. EXERCISE  Translate some excerpts from “Sevda Dolu Bir Yaz,” by Füruzan, into English. REFERENCE 1. Cuddon, J. A. (1999). The penguin dictionary of literary terms and literary theory. London: Penguin Books. 2. Educarchile (2012). "Language functions: expressive." Retrieved on November 03, 2017 at educarchile.cl 3. Encyclopedia of Examples (2017). "Expressive (or Emotive) Function". Retrieved on November 03, 2017 in ejemplos.co 4. Gudiña, Verónica (2008). "The expressive text". Retrieved on November 03, 2017 in poems- del-alma.com 5. Munday, J. (2008) Introducing Translation Studies, Theories and Applications. 2 nd ed. London: Routledge. 6. "The expressive function"Recueperado on November 3, 2017 at escuelas.net 7. Drafting (2017). "Expressive function"Retrieved on November 03, 2017 on ejemplode.com Poetry Translation: Principles and Strategies *Notes on translating poetry  Poetry has been defined in many ways: by the Random House Unabridged Dictionary as ‘the art of rhythmical composition, written or spoken, for exciting pleasure by beautiful, imaginative, or elevated thoughts’; as ‘memorable speech’; as ‘what is lost in translation’.  The soul of poetry lies in the use of language in a figurative, metaphorical mode of expression that transcends traditional semantic limitations of language.  Clement Wood, editor of The Complete Rhyming Dictionary, has stated flatly, ‘Poetry cannot be translated; it can only be recreated in the new language.’ EXERCISE  Translate two lines from Keats’s ‘Ode to a Nightingale’: «Charmed magic casements, opening on the foam Of perilous seas, in faery lands forlorn.»  According to Wood, ‘[t]hese two lines cannot be said differently in English without wrecking the magic.’  Wood argues that «Translate it [the poem] with absolute fidelity into another language, and the poetry is dead. It must be recreated by a poet of like emotional power in the other language, if it is to survive as poetry.’  An issue that must be considered before beginning to translate poetry is:  What does the target audience regard as a ‘poem’? Must it be rhymed?  What metrical pattern best conveys the feel of the original and can an English perceptual equivalent be found?  English-speaking readers usually consider iambic pentameter as the most ‘poetic’ versification (e.g. Shakespeare, among others), but unrhymed iambic pentameter, known as blank verse, is an acceptable alternative for many. EXERCISE  Comment on the following quotation by Jorge Iglesias: ‘A translator isn’t more important than the poem he’s translating.’ *To rhyme or not to rhyme?  «How critical is rhyme to poetry?»  Time was, the unquestioned rule was ‘translate prose as prose, verse as verse.’  Recently no one has seriously proposed rendering a prose work into verse, but over the centuries many have felt that only a translation in verse can do justice to a poetic work. It should be noted that ‘verse’ is not synonymous with rhyme (e.g. classical Greek and Roman poetry was unrhymed).  «Must one be a poet to do poetic translation?»  No, though that the translator must possess a poetic sensitivity, even if he or she has never written a line of original poetry.  A poetic sensitivity encompasses, but is not limited to, an appreciation for nuance, sonority, metaphor and simile, allusion; the ability to read between and above the lines; flexibility; and ultimately, humility.  Do you agree with the following statement? Why? Why not?  «Anyone who can’t read an English-language poem with feeling and more than surface comprehension is an unlikely candidate for poetic translation.» (Landers 99)  Any translation should – make that must – be read aloud for sonority.  Sound is paramount to poets, and more than one translator has been told by the SL poet, ‘When it’s impossible to preserve both meaning and sound, go with the sound.’  Although not all poems (both translations and originals) that sound good are good, it’s a pretty safe bet that a translation that sounds bad is, well, bad.  As with any other translation, if you can get the author’s style and meaning, by all means do so. This is especially vital in poetry, where ambiguity is often a conscious objective.  In any language, poetry is probably the most extreme instance of linguistic concision. Every syllable counts.  To effect a metrical translation it is frequently necessary to add feet to make the line come out right.  Successful poetic translators are able to preserve meter, rhyme, and meaning. *Five Tips on Translating Poetry  Translating poetry is serious business and not to be taken lightly. Your job as a translator is not only to pass the meaning of the poem into another language but to respect and honor its spirit.  There are some rules to respect when you translate a poem:  1. Stay Close to the Poem. Read the poem again and again. By doing this, you will be able to feel the rhythm of the poem. You will recognize the pace, the pauses, the beats, the swirls of energy. Write the poem and stick it where you can see and read it. This will familiarize you with the poem's grammatical structure: where the adjectives are, where there is a break in tenses.  2. Know the poet. If you are lucky enough to pick a living poet to translate, write to him or her. Get to know the person; ask him or her questions about the poem. What was the poet thinking when writing the poem? What does the poet think the poem means? Is there any imagery or language that is repeated? Is there anything symbolic from his or her life? What does the poet think of poetry? The more you know about the poet and his or her life, the better able you are to understand the nuances of the poem.  If, however, you choose a poet who has passed on, your job is a little harder. Try and find out as much as you can about the poet's life. Check the web and university libraries. Be familiar with the poet and you will get a sense for the poem.  3. Go for Grace. When you translate a poem, your job is to stay as close to the meaning as possible. That said, you also have artistic license to use (not abuse) the meaning to make a clear and graceful translation. Translating slag is an excellent example of when to use artistic license. Some slang has absolutely no meaning in another language. In fact, a direct translation would make the poem fail. In that case, turn the meaning of the slang into its equivalent.  4. Be Wary/Cautious. This tip is for those of you who think translating takes a few minutes tops. There are some great computer programs that are designed for translation. There are also some excellent dictionaries and phrase books. But do not rely on them to give you the end-all-be-all translation. You can use these computer programs and dictionary translations as a guide. They may help get to the bones of the poem but your job is to put heart and live language on those bones.  5. Take a Deep Breath. When you finish a translation, sit tight for a few days, maybe even a week, before you go over it. Then come back and see where the gaps and the mistakes are.  Translating a poem is a lot like writing a poem yourself. You have to know what you want to say. You have to feel what you want to say. You have to be focused.  Putting poems into another language is one of the best ways to share culture, honor poets, and remind us that we can transcend geography. EXERCISE 1  Translate an English poem of your choice into Turkish, keeping in mind the 5 tips for translating poetry. EXERCISE 2  Translate a Turkish poem of your choice into English, keeping in mind the 5 tips for translating poetry. EXERCISE 3  Read «She Dwelt among the Untrodden Ways» by William Wordsworth (https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/45549/she-dwelt-among-the- untrodden-ways), then read the Turkish translation and decide if the translator is able to preserve structure, style, rhythm, rhyme, and meaning (https://www.antoloji.com/ceviri-siir-william-wordsworth-o-gecilmemis- yollardan-gecti-siiri/) EXERCISE 4  Read «Mavi Gözlü Dev» by Nâzım Hikmet, then read the Turkish translation and decide if the translator is able to preserve structure, style, rhythm, rhyme, and meaning (https://lyricstranslate.com/en/mavi-goezlue-dev- blue-eyed-giant.html)