PSY 100 Psychology Lecture Notes PDF

rPSY 100 Lecture 1&2: The science of the mind: The Discipline of Psychology Intro ​ “The purpose of psychology is to give us a completely different idea of the things we know best.” Paul Valery ​ Different “Themes” of Psychology: ○​ Biological ​ Neuroscien...

rPSY 100 Lecture 1&2: The science of the mind: The Discipline of Psychology Intro ​ “The purpose of psychology is to give us a completely different idea of the things we know best.” Paul Valery ​ Different “Themes” of Psychology: ○​ Biological ​ Neuroscience ○​ Developmental ​ Early childhood development ​ Learning ○​ Cognitive ​ Mental processes ​ Memory ​ Intelligence ○​ Social & personality ​ How we influence and are influenced by other people ​ Impression formation ​ Prejudice and stereotypes ​ Personality ​ Ways that make “us” us ○​ Ego, superego, id, etc ○​ Mental and physical health ​ Treating psychological disorders ​ Depression, Alzheimers, schizophrenia, bipolar, etc ​ The blind men and the elephant ○​ * Four blind men touching different parts of an elephant who have never seen an elephant and describing what they see ​ Eg: the one who is grabbing the tail might say that an elephant is simply a snake ○​ We cannot rely on a singular perspective to describe things Key Integrative Themes ​ 1: Psychology explains general principles that govern behaviour while recognizing individual differences ​ 2: Applying psychological principles can change our lives, organizations, and communities in positive ways ​ 3: Psychological, Biological, social, and cultural factors influence behaviour and mental processes ​ 4: Our perceptions and biases filter our experiences of the world through an imperfect personal lens Assumptions and Biases of Western Psychology ​ Individuality ○​ Focusing on how behaviour works at an individual level ○​ When someone performs an action it is simply by their own will and not by outside factors ​ Experiment-based empiricism ○​ The best way of learning about the mind is through experiments ​ Quantification ○​ To understand something, we need to be able to measure it in some way ​ If we can’t measure it, we can’t study it ​ “Objectivity” ○​ We can (as humans) conduct research in a way that our biases won't affect the experiment ​ Nomothetic approach ○​ Physics is goverend by laws = Psychology is governed by laws that guidelines how humans behave ​ Male dominance (Biasses) ○​ The field of psychology was developed by white men, and years of male dominance influenced what topics are worth studying Origins of Psychology ​ Wilhelm Wundt (1879, Leipzig Germany) ○​ Founder of experimental Psychology ○​ “Thought meter” - When you hear the bell, people would estimate where the pendulum is located - fraction between ring and report of its location = micro time lapsing when focusing on multiple variables ○​ Medical background ○​ Psychology is the blending between philosophy and physical sciences ○​ Measured mental processing ​ The differences in reaction time from being touched on the shoulder vs the knee proved that cognition can be measured ○​ Founded Voluntarism ​ Wundt believed that we had a choice of what we attended to, what we choose to see or hear (essenitally, free-will - desires/motivations drive behaviour) ​ Voluntarism ○​ Wilhelm Wundt ​ Structuralism ○​ Edward Titchner (Student of Wundt) ○​ We can describe conscious experience by breaking it down into its most basic pieces/components (images, sensations, feelings) ○​ E.g., We can describe an action based on the person's thoughts, feelings, etc ○​ (why did I react by cursing at an opponent, was mad, took it personal, etc) ​ Functionalism ○​ William James ○​ Heavily influenced by Darwin and his idea of evolution (Natural Selection)  ○​ Why do we experience things instead of what it is? ​ E.g., eating icecream ​ Structuralist: The ice cream is cold and tastes good (Summarzie/Describing) vs… ​ Functionalist: Ice cream tastes good because sugar makes it sweet (Analyzing/Explaining) ​ Behaviourism ○​ John Watson, B.F. Skinner ○​ Looking at and learning actual/observable behaviours and not the brain ○​ Much behaviourist research was done on animals (pigeons, rodents, etc) ○​ Take analyses/results from animals and translate practices to humans ​ Humanism ○​ Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow ○​ Positive psychology ○​ Most interested in understanding the unique human experience and helping humans live up to their best potential ○​ Humans are internally good ○​ Enlightenment, help humans become the best version of themselves Lecture 2: Research Methods In Psychology ​ Psychological science relies on empirical evidence and adapts as new data develop. Psychology values transparent, ethical, inclusive, replicable science ​ Psychology adapts as new data develops Role of Theory ​ Scientifc theories are broad and built up on empirical evidence ​ Scientific theories typically explain the relationship between two or more variables Explanatory: Explains data and knowledge that we understand about a concept & Predictive/Generative: Once a theory is established, this leads to new hypotheses ​ A good scientific theory helps branch multiple questions ​ Theories can be used to generate hypothesis ○​ Based on this theory, I would hypothesize that… ​ Scientific theories (and the hypotheses they generate) must also be… ○​ Testable ​ Something that another researcher can retest, as well as having available research techniques/equipments ○​ Falsifiable ​ Must be able to pose an observation that could disprove a theory/concept ○​ Parsimonious ​ Preference for simplicity  ​ Examples of Psychological theories ○​ Intergroup Contact Theory ​ Under certain circumstances, positive intergroup contact can reduce prejudice toward the outgroup ​ Me (white) and Grant (black) being freinds helps to alleviate prejudice between our rracial groups ○​ Social Comparison theory ​ People will evaluate their abilities by comparing themselves to similar others, especially when more objective measures are unavailable ​ Ex: Comparing my lyrics to an artist like Nas ○​ Social learning theory ​ People can learn by observing others, in the absence of explicit behavioural reproduction or reinforcement ​ Ex: I might learn how music listeners like a particular beat-type by noticing how popular particular beats are played Variables ​ A characteristic or condition that changes or has different values for different individuals ​ Independent variable ○​ A variable that is manipulated, to see its impact on the dependent variable ​ Dependant variable ○​ A variable that is measured, to see how it is affected by the independent variable Conceptual vs. Operational Definitions of Variables ​ Conceptual definitions ○​ Similar to a dictionary or textbook definition; the actual concept/meaning of the term (Not hyperbolical or theoretical) ​ Operational definitions ○​ Definitions of theoretical constructs that are stated in terms of concrete, observable procedures ​ Something that can be well-measured and manipulated ​ E.g., how do we measure prejudice? ○​ Some variables are not well-defined and cannot be directly observed ​ Constructs ​ Internal attributes or characteristics that cannot be directly observed but are useful for describing and explaining behaviour Ex: You can’t tell how smart someone is… But by learning their intelligence may help define a particular condition Three Big Categories of Research Methods ​ Descriptive methods ○​ Often concerned with a single variable of interest ○​ May lead to claims regarding frequency of some behaviours ​ Correlational methods ○​ Examine associations between two or more variables ○​ May lead to claims regarding ​ Experimental methods ○​ Examine cause-and-effect relationships between two or more variables Descriptive methods ​ Involve systematic observation and classification of behaviour ​ Includes: ○​ Surveys ○​ Focus groups ○​ Case studies ○​ Observational research ​ Types of Observation ○​ Naturalistic observation ​ In passive observation, observers do not change or alter ongoing behaviour (at least not intentionally) -​ When a researcher goes into the world, naturally observing what is going on around them without altering the enviornment ○​ Participant observation ​ Active observation, the researcher is actively involved in the situation -​ When a researcher, observes, but also interacts with individuals (anthropolostic approach) ○​ Laboratory observation ​ Systematic observations are made within a laboratory setting (rather than in the real world -​ Lab study based, experimental observation ​ Strengths of Descriptive Approaches ○​ Help stimulate ideas to generate specific hypotheses ○​ Surveys allow us to gather large amounts of information quickly and easily ○​ Focus groups and interviews can provide rich, detailed information that may be lacking from a survey ​ Potential Problems with Descriptive Methods ○​ Reactivity (e.g., the Hawthorne effect) ​ Hawthorne was an electric bulb factory and researchers realized that employees worked better when they thought they were being observed -​ In essence, a change in behavior that occurs when people are aware that they are being monitored ​ Demand characteristics ​ If the participant has an idea of what the researcher is looking for, they might react differently  ○​ observer/experimenter bias ​ The personal biases of the observer will change the outcome of the experiment ○​ Self-report bias ​ Social desirability bias ​ People want to be seen as “in association with societal norms” ​ The “better-than-average” effect ​ Many people think they are above average ○​ Not everyone can be better than the average ​ Descriptive methods may lead to claims about the frequency or prevalence of a behaviour Correlational methods ​ Examine associations between two or more variables ​ Involves examining how variables are related (without manipulating any of the variables) ​ A single group of participants, at least two measures (variables of interest) ​ Allows researchers to make claims about associations between variables, but not causal claims ○​ We cannot say A causes B, even if it may seem that way ​ Eg., ○​ Laptop multitasking ​ Unrelated-school laptop use during class time has been associated with lower academic satisfaction, lower end-of-semester GPAs, and lower course performance relative to classmates ​ While this study does tell us that A leads to B, we cannot tell for certain that A causes B ​ Correlational methods tell us about relationships between variables ○​ No relationship (0) ​ A does not affect B ○​ Positive relationship (+) Variables move in the same direction ​ As A increases, B increases ○​ Negative relationship (-) Variables move in the inverse direction ​ As A increases, B decreases ○​ How strong is the relationship? ​ How closely linked are these variables ​ Correlation does not tell us whether one variable causes changes in another variable ○​ Directionality problem ​ We can't tell if A causes B or if B causes A ○​ Third-variable problem ​ There might be a variable C that we have not measured ​ Why correlational methods? ○​ We cant always manipulate a variable we are interested in (due to feasibility or ethical concerns ○​ E.g., Cyberbullying ​ We can’t choose who is bullied and who is the bully  ​ Correlational studies are not an important component of psychological research as they allow us to examine hypotheses about the relationships between variables ​ However, they do not allow us to make cause-and-effect claims, as tempting as they may be Experimental methods ​ Examine cause-and-effect relationships between two or more variables ​ Involve manipulating an independent variable to determine its impact on a dependent variable (which we measure) ​ Are tightly controlled (typically take place in the laboratory) ○​ We need to make sure that only our independent variable changes and everything else stays the same ​ Participants are randomly assigned to study conditions ​ E.g., Karpicke & Bauernschmidt (2011) ○​ Subjects were told to study Swahili differently ○​ Independent variable: the type of studying the participants engaged in ​ Study once ​ Recall once ​ Study and recall info one-time ​ Repeated massed ​ Repeated multiple times at once ​ Repeated spaced ​ Repeated over the week ○​ Dependant variable: tested one week later ○​ Results: People who repeatedly spaced did the best on the test ​ The Importance of Control ○​ Confound: Anything that may unintentionally vary along with the independent variable ​ Is there anything else that might be different between experimental conditions? ​ Confounds limit our ability to make cause-effect claims ​ E.g., the time that participants complete the task can affect their results (6 a.m. vs. 5 pm) ​ Experiments ○​ Random assignment ​ Each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any condition in the study ​ Necessary component of an experiment because this ensures that your different groups are equivalent on average ​ Random assignment ensures the groups are equivalent, on average, on those variables you might be concerned with (e.g., self-esteem, intelligence), as well as those variables you haven't even thought of (confounds) ​ Experimental vs control groups ​ Experimental groups are the people with the independent variable  ​ Control groups are those given a placebo to ensure proper results ○​ Random sample ​ Each member of the population you are interested in has an equal chance of being chosen to participate ​ E.g., if you would like to research study habits at UofT, your sample would be any UofT student ○​ Recall -​ Observer/experimenter bias & demand characteristics ○​ Double Blind ​ Both the participants and the experimenters who interact with them are unaware of which condition the participant is in ○​ Quasi Experiments ​ Experimental design where random assignment is not possible ​ E.g., the researcher takes advantage of pre-existing groups ○​ If high schools change their start and end times, a researcher who wants to see how this would affect students did not assign the students to different schools ​ The risk of potential confounds limits the claims that a researcher can make ​ Can be very useful for studying variables where random assignment isn't feasible, or ethical ○​ Field Experiments ​ Experiments that occur in real-world settings (the “field”) rather than the laboratory ​ Random assignment is possible; however, researchers have less control over the study ​ Participants are often unaware of the study ​ E.g., ​ A researcher wanted to test which pamphlet would make residents reduce their water usage, each house was chosen to get either pamphlet A or B, the residents were not aware of the experiment ​ Participants ○​ Population ​ The group that you want to be able to generalize your findings to (Where your sampling participants are selected from) ○​ Sample ​ The group of individuals from this population who are part of your study (Where data is coming from) ○​ Random samples vs. convenience samples ​ Convenience samples are diverse people who you have access to ​ Random assignment and other strategies are used to avoid the internal validity of our experiment ​ Experiments involve the manipulation of an independent variable to measure its effect on a dependent variable  ​ Random assignment and other strategies are used to avoid potential confounds which threaten the internal validity of our experiment ​ Descriptive methods ○​ May lead to claims regarding the frequency of some behaviour ​ Correlational methods ○​ May lead to claims regarding the association between two variables ​ Experimental methods ○​ May lead to claims regarding the causal relationship between two variables Lecture 3: Research methods Validity vs. Reliability ​ A measure can be reliable and not valid, but NOT valid and unreliable ​ Reliability (Conistency of measure) ○​ Interrater reliability ​ A.K.A interobserver reliability ​ Have multiple observers watch an experiment and see if their responses are reliable ​ Example: Olympic diver judges, observing ○​ Test-Retest reliability ​ Your experiment can be re-tested and show the same result ​ Validity (How justifiable, trustworthy, and equitable are these results) ○​ Each type of validity focuses on a different way of searching for plausible alternatives ○​ Reliabitity is necessary for validity ○​ Construct validity ​ Operationalizations ​ Are your measures accurate? ​ Are there alternative constructs the measure may be assessing ​ E.g: A new study says your anxiety can make you better at your job ​ Is the measure capturing anxiety or something else? ​ Is it measuring acute, chronic or clinical anxiety? Etc ○​ External validity ​ Generalizability ​ Who can we generalize our results to ​ What other group could this result better pair with? ​ E.g: A new study says your anxiety can make you better at your job ​ Who were the participants in this study? Where and where was it conducted ○​ Internal Validity ​ Causality ​ Are there confounds in the experiment? ​ Are there any other explanations of what is going on Statistics ​ Descriptive Statistics ○​ Organize data into meaningful patterns and summaries ○​ Help us make sense of the data ○​ Use bar graphs, line graphs, etc ​ They describe the data ​ Percentages, counts, averages, correlations, etc ​ Inferential statistics ○​ Allow us to extend conclusions from a sample to a population ○​ Allow us to make inferences based on data ​ E.g., “based on these data, we predict that…” ​ These inferences are always probabilistic ​ Hypotheses are never proven! ​ Replication and Reproducibility ○​ Reproducibility ​ A study can be duplicated in method and analysis ​ Can a researcher get the same statistics as I did using the same data? ​ Have I been transparent enough? ○​ Replicability ​ A study about a phenomenon produces similar results from a previous study of the same phenomenon ​ Close/exact replications ​ Conceptual Replications ​ Have other researchers done the same experiments and got the same results? Lecture 4: Biological Foundations of Behaviour ​ Francis Galton ○​ Father of Eugenics ○​ Selected Eminence to study overtime ​ He found that eminence decreased over time due to intermarriage ○​ Layed out a framework for researching twins to study behavioural genetics ​ If nature is more powerful then the twins would be the same ​ If nurture is more powerful then twins are different based on their experiences ​ Twin & adoption studies ○​ Help researchers study the impact of genetic versus environmental influences ○​ Monozygotic ​ Identical twins ​ Raised together ​ Raised apart ​ Would the twins act the same raised apart? ​ The “Jim” Twins ​ Dr. Nancy Segal ​ Twins separated at birth ​ Both married women with the same name  ​ Both have a pet dog named Toy ​ Both had been a deputy sheriff ​ Each vacationed in Florida at the same time ​ etc ○​ Dizygotic ○​ Non-identical twins Genes x Environment ​ Nature and nurture are inextricably entwined ○​ It is impossible to separate genetic influences from environmental influences ○​ They can work together to determine human behaviour ​ Epigenetics ○​ Means: Above genetics ○​ Changes in gene expression that are due to non-genetic (epi → outer) influences ○​ Changes in what genes are turned on based on our environment ​ Example ○​ Caspi et al. 2002, Science ​ Predictor variables ​ Type of MAO-A gene → lower vs higher levels of MAO ○​ “Nature” ○​ Individuals can have either high or low MAO ​ MAO breaks down neurotransmitters ​ Mistreatment during childhood ○​ “Nurture” ​ Outcome variable ​ Convicted of violent crime by 26? ​ Result: ​ Low MAO gene + Maltreatment → increased probability of being violent criminal ○​ Fraga et. al (2005) ​ Studied 160 identical twin pairs between ages 3-74 ​ As twins age, their gene expression becomes more different ​ Twins who had spent the most time away from each other showed the most changes in their gene expression Heredity vs. Heritability ​ Heredity ○​ The genetic transmission of characteristics from parents to offspring ​ Heritability ○​ An estimate of the genetic proportion of the variation in some specific trait ​ Within a particular population (NOT an individual) ○​ How much does height (intelligence, etc) vary within the population ○​ Do related individuals show less variation than unrelated individuals ○​ Estimate of heritability ​ % of the variation that is explained by genetic differences  ​ E.g., Heritability of social values is estimated to be about 30% The Nervous System ​ The nervous system is the body’s electrochemical communication circuitry ​ Central nervous system (CNS) ○​ Brain and spinal cord ​ Peripheral Nervous system (PNS) ○​ Somatic nervous system ○​ Autonomic nervous system ​ Sympathetic nervous system ​ Parasympathetic nervous system ​ Neurons ○​ The basic unit of the nervous system ○​ Operate through electrical impulses ○​ Communicate with other neurons through chemical signals ​ A neuron has on average 10,000 connections with other neurons ○​ Three types of neurons: ​ Sensory neurons (afferent neurons) ​ Bringing in information ​ Motor neurons (efferent neurons) ​ Send out information ​ Interneurons ​ Communicate between the sensory and motor neurons ○​ Dendrites ​ Receive information from other neurons ○​ Cell body ​ ○​ Nucleus ○​ Axon ​ Action potential ​ Transmits signals from one side of the neuron to the next ○​ Myelin Sheath ​ Allows the electric impulse to travel more quickly ​ Neurons can be unmyelinated or myelinated ○​ Node of Ranvier ○​ Schwann Cell ​ Helps make myelin on different axons ○​ Terminal buttons ​ Release chemicals via neurotransmitters to dendrites to other neighbouring neurons Neural Communication ​ Action potential ○​ Neurons communicate via action potentials ​ The neural impulse that passes along the axon and subsequently causes the release of chemicals from the terminal buttons  ○​ Neurons generate action potentials if: ​ the excitatory input (depolarization) reaches a certain threshold (e.g., -55mV) ○​ All or non principle ​ A neuron fires with the same magnitude each time (either fires or does not fire) ​ Resting potential ○​ Polarized state (more negative inside the cell, approximately -70mV) ​ Excitatory signals ○​ Increase the likelihood that the neuron will fire ​ Inhibitory signals ○​ Decreases the chance of the neuron firing ​ Resting-state ○​ Neurons are polarized at rest ​ (resting membrane potential -70mV) ​ The inside of the cell is more negative than the outside ​ More sodium (Na+) OUTSIDE and more potassium (K+) INSIDE ​ Depolarization ○​ If the neuron reaches its excitatory threshold, it will fully depolarize (generate an action potential) ​ All or non-principle ○​ Na+ channels open and the charge across the membrane reverses ​ Becomes more positive INSIDE the cell due to the influx of Na+ ​ Hyperpolarization ○​ At the peak of the action potential, Na+ channels will close and K+ channels will open, allowing K+ to leave the cell ​ This outflowing of K+ actually leads to a temporary hyperpolarization, during which the neuron cannot fire ​ K+ channels close, and the cell returns to its resting state Neurotransmitters and Neuroplasticity ​ Neurotransmitters ○​ Chemical substances that carry signals from one neuron to another ○​ Are stored in vesicles (small packages) (ending of axons) ○​ Presynaptic membrane ​ The membrane of the neuron that is sending the signal ○​ Postsynaptic membrane ​ The membrane of the neuron that is receiving the signal ​ Some Important Neurotransmitters ○​ Glutamate ​ Primary excitatory neurotransmitter ​ Go signals ○​ GABA ​ Primary inhibitory neurotransmitter ​ Stop signals  ○​ Serotonin ​ Mood, impulsiveness, hunger, sleep ○​ Dopamine ​ Reward and motivation, voluntary movement ○​ Acetylcholine ​ Movement, memory, cognition, sleep ○​ Epinephrine & norepinephrine ​ E.g., stress response (fight or flight) ​ How Drugs Work ○​ Drugs may function as agonists → binding to receptors and producing a response that mimics the effects of an endogenous neurotransmitter ​ Drugs may also enhance the effects of endogenous neurotransmitters by: ​ Increasing the release of neurotransmitters ​ Blocking the reuptake of neurotransmitters ​ E.g, Morphine (mimics endorphins), Cocaine (prevents the re-uptake of dopamine) ○​ Drugs may function as antagonists → inhibiting the action of an endogenous neurotransmitter by: ​ Blocking the release of neurotransmitter ​ Destroying neurotransmitters in the synapse ​ Mimicking a neurotransmitter (& blocking neurotransmitter binding) ​ E.g., Beta-blockers (block epinephrine), Botulinum toxin (blocks acetylcholine) ​ Neuroplasticity ○​ Our neurons are the oldest cells in the bodyt we are capable of creating new neurons (neurogenesis) ○​ The brain is “plastic” → able to be changed, and reorganized, as a result of experience, drugs, or injury (e.g., stroke) ​ E.g., Rats raised in enriched versus impoverished environments (research going back to the 1960s) ​ The environments that we are raised in can lead to changes at a neural level ​ Took rats and raised them in different environments ​ The impoverished environment only had basic necessities (water, food) ​ The enriched had swings, etc ​ Researchers found that the neurons had more dendrites and could make more connections in the enriched environment unlike the impoverished ones A Brief Intro To The Brain ​ The Nervous system ○​ The nervous system is the body’s electrochemical communication circuitry ○​ Central nervous system (CNS) ​ Brain and spinal cord ○​ Peripheral nervous systems (PNS)  ​ Somatic nervous system ​ Autonomic nervous system ​ Sympathetic nervous system ​ Parasympathetic nervous system ​ Brainstem ○​ Controls life-sustaining functions of the autonomic nervous system, including breathing, digestion, heartbeat, etc. ○​ Reticular formation ​ Keeping your heart pumping, etc ○​ Reticular formation ​ Located in the brainstem ​ A vast array of neurons that ​ → alertness, sleep ​ Cerebellum ○​ Essential for coordinated movement and balance ○​ Provides smooth, coordinated body movement ○​ Comprised cerebellums (drinking) can cause an imbalance ○​ Abt. 50% of neurons found in cerebellum ○​ Only abt. 10% of the brain’s volume The Diencephalon ​ Subcortical structure ○​ Above the brainstem ○​ The cerebellum, thalamus, and hypothalamus ​ Hypothalamus ○​ A tiny but powerful piece deep in the center of the brain ​ The brain’s master regulatory structure → connects the nervous system to the endocrine system (hormone systems) ​ AKA Hormone system ​ Critical to motivation and homeostasis ​ Maintaining temperature, etc ​ The four F’s ​ Fight ​ Flight ​ Feeding (Fullness/hunger signals) ​ Fornication (Sexual signals) ​ Thalamus ○​ Often referred to as a relay station ​ Handles all incoming sensory information except smell ​ The first stopping point of all incoming sensory information ○​ Case studies: ​ Tatiana & Krista Hogan ​ Born 2006 ​ Craniopagus twins whose brains are connected by a thalamic bridge ○​ In certain cases, one can taste the other’s food ​ E.g., one likes ketchup but the other hates it, when one eats ketchup the other can taste it ​ Patient George  ​ Patient George had a stroke which affected his left thalamus ○​ When his brain repaired its connections, he developed multisensory synesthesia ​ He can hear a sound and that can prompt him to smell something ​ E.g., holding the subway handle makes him smell poop ​ The Basil Ganglia ○​ A shrimp-looking cluster of neurons ○​ Every pleasurable experience is due to the dopamine receptors in the nucleus of the basal ganglia ○​ Regulates and produces voluntary movements ​ The appropriate amount of pressure to hold an egg vs a brick. The Limbic System ​ Limbus in Latin means border ​ Handles emotion ​ Includes Amygdala, Hippocampus, Parahippocampal gyrus, cingulate cortex, septal nuclei, fornix, hypothalamus, mammillary body ​ Hippocampus ○​ A seahorse-shaped structure ○​ Formation and storage of long-term memory ○​ Patient HM ​ Removed hippocampus due to brain surgery ​ No longer able to form long-term memories ○​ The hippocampus & Neuroplasticity ​ Researchers studied London cab drivers ​ To get a cab license, every driver must pass a knowledge test (had to memorize 25,000 streets, where every restaurant is, etc) ​ Does their task to memorize vast information change the hippocampi? ○​ The posterior Hippocampus was changed drastically ​ Amygdala ○​ Located in front of the hippocampus ○​ Best known for its role in processing fear ​ Deals with fight or flight ○​ Essential to our ability to associate things with emotional responses ​ E.g., memories of a funeral ​ Sadness, melancholic, etc ​ Cerebral Cortex ○​ In the outer layer of the brain; each cerebral hemisphere has four lobes ○​ The Corpus Callosum (massive bridge of axons) connects the hemispheres and allows information to flow between them ○​ Occipital lobes ​ Vision ​ Primary visual cortex  ○​ Temporal lobes ​ Hearing ​ Primary auditory cortex ○​ Parietal Lobes ​ Touch ​ Primary sensory cortex ○​ Frontal lobes ​ Planning, movement ​ Primary motor cortex ​ Prefrontal cortex ​ Larger in humans than other animals ​ Higher order cognition ​ Planning, thinking about the future, etc ○​ Phineas Gage ​ In 1848, a rod shot through his eye, damaging his frontal lobe during an explosion ​ Went through the prefrontal cortex ​ Immediately after healing, his personality changed ​ His ability to understand social norms, and interacting with people ○​ Regained a lot of these after a long time Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) ​ Transmits information to the CNS ​ Responds to messages from the CNS to perform certain behaviours or make bodily adjustments ​ Divided into two primary components ○​ Somatic nervous system (SNS) ​ Responsible for voluntary movement (e.g., taking notes) ​ Concerned with the External environment ​ Consists primarily of motor neurons responsible for sending signals from the CNS to the skeletal muscles ​ ○​ Voluntary motor control; reflex arcs ○​ Efferent pathway ​ From the brain to the body ​ Includes Sensory neurons which send signals from the skin, skeletal muscles, and other sense organs to the CNS ○​ Conscious perception of our environment ○​ Afferent pathway ​ From the body to the brain ○​ Autonomic nervous system (ANS) ​ Responsible for involuntary movement ​ E.g., breathing, heartbeat, etc ​ Concerned with the internal enviroment ​ Efferent and afferent pathways between the CNS and smooth muscles/glands (e.g., circulatorysystem, digestive system)  ​ Autonomic responses typically involve changes in involuntary bodily functions (e.g., heart rate, digestion, perspiration) ​ Includes: ○​ Sympathetic Nervous system ​ Prepares the body for action (fight or flight) ○​ Parasympathetic nervous system ​ Returns the body to its normal state (rest and digest or feed and breed) ​ Opposing functions of the sympathetic system, but the two systems work in a complementary fashion ​ Chronic activation of either system can lead to health problems Beyond The Nerves: The Endocrine System ​ The endocrine system works with the nervous system to regulate psychological activity ​ Whereas the nervous system uses electromagnetic signals, the endocrine systems use hormones ○​ The hypothalamus connects the CNS to the ENS ○​ Hormones are chemical substances released into the bloodstream by endocrine glands until they reach the targeted tissues ​ Communication is slower ​ Effects can be widespread and long-lasting ​ Hormones can have effects on multiple organs throughout the body ​ Coordinated systems ○​ E.g., ​ Neural activation causes the hippocampus to secrete a releasing factor (e.g., corticotrophin-releasing factor) ​ This releasing factor causes a pituitary gland to release a hormone specific to that factor (e.g., adrenocorticotropic hormone) ​ The hormone travels through the bloodstream to target sites throughout the body (e.g., the adrenal cortex, which releases cortisol) Lecture 5: Sensation & Perception ​ You do not perceive the world ‘as it is’ You perceive it as you are ​ The binding problem ​ Sensation ○​ Involves the detection of external stimuli (e.g., light, pressure, etc), responses to those stimuli, and the transmission of these responses to the brain ​ Perception ○​ Involves the processing, organization, and interpretation of sensory signals in the brain, resulting in an internal representation of stimuli – and your conscious experience of it ​ Everything is experienced in your brain  ○​ Our brain is constantly predicting what will happen next ​ The world you live in is constructed by you ​ context/expectations play a huge role ​ Change is important Sensation ​ Going from the world to your brain ​ Transduction ○​ The process by which sensory receptors pass impulses to connecting neurons when they receive stimulation (e.g., from pressure on the skin, in the case of touch ○​ Afferent stimulus ○​ Recall the Thalamus ​ Absolute threshold ○​ The minimum intensity of stimulation that must occur before you experience a sensation (or the stimulus intensity detected above chance) ○​ E.g., The quietest sound that we can detect ○​ Correct rejection ​ A sound did not play and we did not hear a sound ○​ Hit ​ A sound played and we heard it ○​ False hit ​ A sound did not play but we heard it ○​ False rejection ​ A sound played but we did not hear it ​ Difference threshold ○​ The just noticeable difference between two stimuli (the minimum amount of change required for a person to detect a difference 50% of the time) ○​ Detecting the difference between two stimuli ​ Sensory adaptation ○​ Adapting to a new sensory impulse ​ E.g., going into cold water ​ Not always feeling your clothes ​ Gustation & Olfaction ○​ Every taste experience is composed of a mix of five basic qualities: sweet, salty, sour, bitter, & Umami (savoury) ​ Taste buds are found on the surface of the tongue ​ Dissolved by salavi ○​ Smell and texture are also important → remember, the taste experience occurs in your brain ○​ Smell ​ The only sense that bypasses the thalamus ​ AKA olfactory receptors ​ The olfactory epithelium (or mucosa) is a thin layer of tissue embedded with smell receptors, which transmit information to the olfactory bulb, which is the brain center for smell  ​ Olfactory bulb ​ The center for smell ​ Thousands of odur receptors pick up about 10,000 different odurs ​ Makes direct connections to the amygdala and the hippocampus ○​ This is why smells are associated with memory ​ E.g., ​ Orrbifrontal cortex (OFC) ​ Piriform cortex (PC) ○​ Pretty small in humans ○​ The smell center of the brain ​ Receives info from smell, taste, and visual systems ​ Flavour perception ​ Somatosenses ○​ Vestibular system ​ The main focus is to stabilize your head when turning ​ Vestibular ocular reflex ​ If you are focusing on something and turn your head, your eyes will stay focused on that object ○​ Touch, temperature, pressure, & pain ​ 4 main types of touch receptors ​ On the surface ​ Initial pressure ​ Continuous pressure ​ vibration/stretching ​ Mechanoreceptors ​ Respond to mechanical touch, distortion or pressure ​ The most sensitive mechanoreceptors are found in the cochlea → responsible for sound transduction ○​ The primary somatosensory cortex ​ Next to the primary motor cortex ​ At the front of the parietal lobe ​ Contralateral organization ​ The left side of the brain manages movements from the right side of the body and vice versa ​ Connected parts of the body tend to be represented beside each other ​ Somatotopic organization ​ Touch response from the right finger is from a certain spot of the somatosensory cortex ​ More sensitive parts of the body (hands, feet, etc) have more somatosenses than other parts of the body  ​ Nociceptors → Pain reception ○​ The brain has no nociceptors ○​ Activated by damaging (or possibly damaging) stimuli → being pierced, burned, etc. ​ Myelinated (“A delta”) fibres → sharp, immediate pain (protection) ​ Burning your hand ​ Lightly or non-myelinated (“C”) fibres → Dull, steady pain (recuperation) ​ After burning your hand, your hand will still have a burning sensation ○​ Gate control theory of pain: ​ For pain to be experienced, pain receptors must be activated AND the neural “gate” in the spinal cord must allow the signals through to the brain ​ If the gate is “open” → pain is experienced ​ If the gate is “closed” → pain is reduced (or prevented) Vision l ​ The eye ○​ Muscles change the shape of the lens, flattening it to focus on distant objects, and thickening it to focus on closer objects ​ Process of accommodation ​ Near Target ○​ The lens is thickened to focus on a close subject ○​ Objects in the distance are blurry ​ Far object ○​ The lens is stretched, allowing us to see far ○​ Objects close to the eye are blurry ​ Myopia ​ The lens is not working properly ​ Light does not hit the fovea, leading to blurry vision ○​ Chornea ​ The windshield of the eye ​ Protecting layer ​ Directs incoming light waves to the back of the eye ○​ Pupil ​ The whole that the light enters (black circle inside the color) ○​ Iris ​ The coloured part of the pupil ○​ Retina ​ Photoreceptors are located here ​ Responsible for the transduction of light waves into action potentials ​ Multiple layers ○​ Fovea ​ Most detailed vision ​ Lots of cones  ​ Used for detailed vision ○​ Optic disk ​ All the axon cells in the retina form the optic nerve and head to the brain ​ He blind spot in the eye ​ Transduction ○​ Photoreceptors ​ Convert the energy from light particles (photons) into a chemical reaction that produces an electrical signal ​ Rods ​ Retinal cells that respond to low levels of light, and result in black and white perception. About 120 million in each retina, located along the edges ​ Located along the edges of the retina ​ Mainly analyzes black and white light ​ E,g, rods help us move in a dimly lit environment ​ Cones ​ Retinal cells, that respond to higher levels of light, and result in colour perception, about 6 million in each retina, located in the fovea ​ Cluttered in the middle of the fovea ​ Used for detailed vision ​ Used for colour ​ Visual transmission ○​ Rods and cones → bipolar, amacrine, horizontal cells → Gonglion cells/optic nerve ​ Colour perception ○​ Three types of cones: ​ S cones → short wavelengths → blue ​ M cones → medium wavelengths → greens ​ L cones → long wavelengths → reds ○​ According to trichromatic theory, the perception of colour is determined by the ratio of activity among these three types of receptors ​ Opponent-process theory ○​ Focus on ganglion cells in the retina ○​ Three opposing pairs (if one colour in the pair is stimulated, the other is inhibited) ​ E.g., Some cells will be excited when they see blue and this inhibits yellow ​ Our brain can only see one of these colours at a time because one inhibits the other ​ E.g, we don't have a reddish-green or a bluey-yellow ○​ These are impossible colours (we only see brown) ​ Red / Green ​ Yellow / Blue ​ White / Black ​ Motion perception  ○​ Motion-sensitive neurons: Fatigue of certain motion-sensitive neurons leads to motion after-effects (the waterfall illusion) ​ E.g., getting off a roller coaster and everything is still spinning ○​ We tire our motion neurons and they still perceive an object moving Lecture 6: Sensation & Perception (Cont) (Vision) Visual transmission ​ Rods and cones ​ Bipolar, amacrine, horizontal cells ​ Ganglion cells/optic nerve ​ Thalamus (LGN) lateral geniculate nucleus ​ Primary visual cortex ○​ What and where ​ Visual areas beyond the primary visual cortex form two parallel processing streams: ​ Dorsal “where” stream ○​ Specialized for spatial perception, determining where an object is located relative to other objects ​ Ventral “what” stream ○​ Specialized for object recognition such as determining the colour and shape ○​ Object agnosia ​ The inability to recognize objects ○​ Prosopagnosia ​ The inability to know someone from their faces ​ Contralateral organization ○​ Our left visual field is processed by our right hemisphere and vice versa ○​ Optic chiasma ​ Where the fields split Gestalt Principles of Perceptual Organization ​ These principles help to explain how we perceive objects in our environment (how do we organise elements into groups in order to perceive a “unified whole”?) ○​ Figure-ground relationship ​ Whatever is not the figure (the main object, the focus of the visual field) is automatically assigned as background ○​ Illusory contours ​ We tend to perceive contours, even when they don't exist (but something in the stimulus suggests that they ought to be present ​ The brain always wants to see patterns ○​ Proximity ​ The closer two figures are, the more likely we are to group them and see them as being part of the same object  ​ E.g., … … … … ○​ Similarity ​ We tend to group figures according to how closely they resemble each other ​ E.g., squares with squares, etc ○​ Continuation ​ We tend to interpret intersecting lines as continuous rather than as changing direction radically ○​ Closure ​ We tend to complete figures that have gaps Depth Perception ​ Retinal disparity ○​ An important cue of depth perception caused by the distance between the eyes, which provides each eye with a slightly different image The brain uses the disparity between these two retinal images to compute distances ​ Monocular depth cues ○​ Include occlusion, relative size, familiarize, linear perspective, texture gradient, and position relative to horizon ​ Occlusion ​ A blockage or closing ​ E.g., pillars blocking the view of a building ​ Muller-Lyer Illusion ○​ When you show most people two lines >---< vs. ←-> they would sat that the first one is longer ○​ They are the same length The arrows misguide us ​ Ponzo illusion ○​ Parallel lines shown in a relative perspective pictures look like they are of different sizes ​ Motion cues ○​ For depth perception to include the motion parallax: objects that are farther away seem to move more slowly than closer objects ○​ E,g., seeing a car driving next to you on the road vs a house far away Bottom-up vs Top-Down Processes ​ Bottom-up processing ○​ Information is sent from lower-level processing areas to higher-level processing areas ○​ Info driven ​ Top Down Processing ○​ Information from higher-level areas can also influence lower- “earlier” levels in the processing hierarchy ​ Expectations inform perceptions ​ Knowledge-driven ​ What we expect to see Split Brain Patients ​ Things to remember ○​ Corpus callosum ​ The bridge between the two hemispheres ○​ Contralateral organization ○​ Lateralization of function ​ Certain functions are more dominant in the left or right hemisphere in most people E.g., language production is found in the left hemisphere ​ In the 80s, many people who were having daily seizures had their hemispheres split, which caused fewer seizures ○​ These subjects were shown a teddy bear in their right visual field and a duck in the left visual field ​ When they were asked to talk about what they saw, because the teddy bear was being picked up by the left hemisphere (better with language) they said bear ​ But when they were told to point at objects that correlated with the image, they pointed at a bath ​ When they get asked why they pointed at the duck, they make up a story connecting the bath with the bear ​ The left hemisphere doesn’t know what the right hemisphere has seen (the rubber duck), so it interprets the left hand’s response (pointing to the bathtub) in a manner consistent with its knowledge! ​ Interpreter ○​ A left-hemisphere process that attempts to make sense of events ​ Creates a comprehensive story out of events, provides a narrative, tries to find patterns, relationships ​ Fusiform face area ○​ Area of the brain that becomes particularly active when people look at faces ​ Located between the occipital and temporal lobes, bigger on the right side Lecture 7: Lifespan Development ​ Developmental psychology ○​ Focuses on the physiological, cognitive, and social changes that occur in individuals across the lifespan ○​ Humans can learn from their environment and adapt (neuroplasticity) ​ Reflexes present at birth ○​ Grasping ○​ Rooting ​ Infants open their mouths when something brushes their cheeks ○​ Sucking ○​ etc ​ Facial recognition occurs early in infancy ( infants prefer their mother's face over unfamiliar female faces)  ​ Big questions in developmental psychology ○​ Nature or nurture? ​ How do these influences interact across the lifespan? ​ Both nature and nurture work together and are hard to separate ○​ Universal or ecological? ​ Importance of considering social and cultural influences in development ○​ Continuous or discontinuous? ​ Does development happen in stages or occur in a steady process? ​ Windows of plasticity: ○​ Certain stages where our brains are particularly receptive to environmental input ○​ E.g., ​ Sensory ​ During the beginning of life, we are most sensitive to receiving signals from the environment ​ This helps us learn how to process sensory inputs early on in life ​ Language ​ It is relatively easy for young children(around the age of 2) to pick up on language ​ Development methods: ○​ How do we know what infants and toddlers understand about the world? ​ Some common research techniques for learning what infants know: ​ Preferential looking technique ○​ If we show 2 stimuli to a baby, one normal colour (red) and one interesting colour (pink with green stripes) ○​ Looking at babies of different ages ○​ If they spend an equal amount of time looking at both, then they do not understand the difference between the stimuli ​ Habituation/ orienting reflex ○​ Continuation Lecture 8: Social Development ​ Strong, Emotional connection that persists over and across circumstances ○​ There is a critical period where infants form a connection with their parents ​ If this connection is not made early in life it can have negative consequences ○​ Adaptive → encourages proximity between child and mother/caregiver ​ Encourage parents to care for young ​ Encourages infants to follow and obey caregivers ○​ Oxytocin ​ A chemical system that encourages attachment behaviours Attachment: Harry Harlow ​ Harry Harlow (1959): attachment in Rhesus Monkeys ○​ Mom as milk vs. Mom as comfort ​ Behavouirists believed that the bond between infants and mothers was solely because the mother provides milk and nourishment to the child ​ Harlow found that when Rhesus monkeys are scared, they choose mothers who give them comfort vs milk Strange Situation Test ​ Mary Ainsworth ○​ Observed attachment behaviours with infants ​ The infant and their caregiver enter a room ​ The mother leaves the room ​ They observe what the infant's reaction is when the mother returns ○​ Secure Attachment ​ Approx. 65% of children ​ E.g., Upset when a caregiver leaves, but easily comforted upon their return ○​ Insecure attachment (Anxious-Ambivalent) ​ E.g., clings to caregiver gets upset, both wants and resists comfort ​ (may act angry) ○​ Insecure- Avoidant (Anxious-Avoidant) ​ E.g., little distress when a caregiver leaves and avoids caregiver upon their return ○​ Disorganized Attachment ​ Added later, inconsistent, odd behaviours ​ Factors Affecting infant-caregiver Attachment ○​ Caregiver sensitivity ○​ Infant temperament ​ Not all babies have the same emotional regulation ​ E.g., extroverted babies seem to be more loud and affected by their mothers leaving ○​ Environmental factors ​ E.g., does the infant have a sibling? ​ What is the living situation? ​ How many caregivers do they have ○​ Cultural factors ​ Cultural stereotypes dictating how parents should behave Parenting styles ​ four key dimension ○​ Behavioural regulation ​ setting limits and boundaries for their children  High Parental support Low Parental Support High Behavioral Regulation Authoritative Authoritarian Low Behavioural Regulation Indulgent Uninvolved ​ Authoritative ○​ This style is the most effective at creating strong and lasting relationships between parents and children ○​ High on parental support and high behavioural regulation ○​ Lots of support and lots of rules ​ Authoritarian ○​ Low Support ○​ Lots of rules ​ Indulgent ○​ High support ○​ little/no rules ​ Uninvolved ○​ Most harmful parenting styles ○​ Low/ no support ○​ little/ no rules Eric Erikson’s Psychosocial Model ​ First Lifespan theory of development ​ Every “stage” of identity features a challenge that must be confronted to progress successfully ○​ Some examples: ​ Trust vs. mistrust (Birth to 2 years): is the world safe? ​ Is there someone that can take care of me? ​ Identity vs. Role confusion (adolescence): Who am I? ​ Intimacy vs. isolation (Early adulthood): What type of partner/relationship do I want? Harvard’s Grant ​ 268 Harvard grads were followed every 2 years for 75 years ○​ Every 2 years the subjects would have to answer some questions ○​ Good relationships keep us happier and healthier Lecture 8: Cognitive development ​ Jean Piaget ○​ A swiss psychologist ○​ Worked in Paris with Alfred Bene administering tests to children ○​ The first to begin the study of cognitive abilities in children  ​ Believed that children had unique ways of viewing, understanding, and comprehending the world ​ During each stage of development, children form new schemas ○​ Ways of perceiving, organizing, and thinking about how the world works ○​ Two key learning processes: ​ Assimilation ​ Incorporating new information into existing schemas ○​ We do not have to change our worldview ​ Accommodation ​ We cannot assimilate this information and have to make changes to the way we perceive the world to adapt to this information ​ E.g., dog schema ​ A two-year-old was told that dogs are pets with four legs and a tail (schema) ○​ The same two-year-old thinks a cat is a dog (they are assimilating the cat to her existing schema for a dog), but is told that they are two different animals ​ The child now has to accommodate this new information ​ Equilibration ​ An active self-regulatory process by which a child progresses through the stages of development ○​ Match between cognitive structures and reality ○​ When our existing schemas are no longer sufficient, we experience disequilibrium and become motivated to develop new (more complex) schemas (accommodation) ​ Four stages of cognitive development ○​ Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years) ​ Acquiring information only through the senses ​ Forming representations of the kings of actions that can be performed on certain objects ​ Object permanence ​ Things continue to exist when you can no longer sense them ​ Moves from reaction to action ​ As their motor skills become more developed, they begin to interact with things in their environment ​ Primary circular directions ​ Occur during the first few months of life ​ Reactions to one's own body ​ Sucking on their own hands ​ Reactions that they have to their bodies ​ Secondary Circular Reactions ​ 4-8 months of age ​ Repetition of actions involving external objects ○​ Toys that make sounds ​ Tertiary circular reactions  ​ Little Scientists ​ E.g., a child sitting in a high chair and realizing they can drop objects onto the ground ​ Experimenting with the world around them ​ Preoperational Stage (2-6 years) ○​ Begin to think symbolically, but not logically ​ E.g., Piaget believed children at this age lacked an understanding of the law of conservation ( but there are problems with Piagets methods ○​ The development of language ○​ Egosentrik thinking ​ Children at this stage are unable to think that other people have different views of the world ​ Children are self-focused ○​ Theory of Ming (ToM) ​ The false belief task ​ The ability to infer other people's views of the same objects ​ Concrete Operational Stage (6-11) ○​ Development of more logical thinking: but reasoning is limited to concrete objects ​ Formal Operational Stage (12+ years) ○​ Able to think and reason abstractively ○​ Deductive reasoning and solving problems Lev Vygotsky ​ Compared to Piaget, Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development placed more emphasis on sociocultural factors ○​ Zone of proximal development ​ Development is ideal when the learner can do something with the help ○​ Scaffolding ​ A teacher matches guidance to the learner's needs ​ Slowly reducing involvement as the learner develops on their own ​ Learning is social and collaborative Lecture 9: Learning ​ A (relatively lasting) Change in behaviour resulting from experience ​ The behaviourists ○​ Psychologists should focus on the study of observable behaviours ○​ Stimulus (input) → (Black box) → response (output) ○​ The behaviourists overly rely on nurture ​ Experience is what shapes behaviour ​ Three Types of Learning ○​ Nonassociative Learning (frequency) ​ Habituation and sensitization  ​ Habituation ​ When we have less of a reaction to a stimulus that is being repeated ​ Sensitization ​ An increased reaction after exposure to intense stimuli ○​ Associative learning (formation of connections) ​ Classical and operant conditioning ○​ Observational learning (watching others) ​ Social learning theory Associative Learning ​ Classical (Pavlovian) Conditioning ​ ○​ Occurs when two different stimuli come to be associated with one another ○​ Does not require any action on the part of the learner ​ Operant (instrumental) Conditioning ○​ Occurs when a learner operates on their environment to produce a particular result (e.g., learning a trick to receive a treat) Classical Conditioning ​ A type of learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to elicit a reflective response because it has become associated with a stimulus that already produces a response ○​ Unconditioned stimulus (US) ○​ Unconditioned response (UR) ○​ Neutral stimulus (NS) ○​ Conditioned stimulus (CS) ○​ Conditioned response (CR) ​ E.g., DOg food example ○​ Before conditioning: ​ Food = Unconditioned stimulus (US), salivation = Unconditioned response (UR), Metronome = Neutral stimulus (NS) ○​ During conditioning ​ Metronome (NS) + Food (US) = Salivation (UR) ○​ After conditioning ​ Metronome (CS) = salivation (CR) ​ Acquisition ○​ The gradual formation of an association between the conditioned and unconditional stimuli ○​ Contiguity ​ Proximity in time between neutral stimulus and unconditioned stimulus ​ If there is a delay (metronome, then food 5 mins later) no conditioning occurs ​ NS must be followed quickly by the US to be learnt ○​ Contingency ​ Both the NS and the US must be shown together to elicit a response (UR) ​ Extinction  ○​ A process in which conditioned response is weakened when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus ​ Spontaneous recovery ○​ A process in which previously extinguished response re-emerges following presentation of the conditioned stimulus ​ Stimulus generalization ○​ Occurs when stimuli that are similar but not identical to the conditioned stimulus produce the conditioned response ​ Stimulus Discrimination ○​ A differentiation between two similar stimuli when only one of them is consistently associated with the unconditioned stimulus ​ Second-order Conditioning ○​ When something is consistently paired with the conditioned stimulus, without the unconditioned stimulus, and leads to a conditioned response ○​ E.g., metronome (CS) + singing (SCS) (second conditioned stimulus) ​ If the dog hears the singing without the bell, the dog will start to drool ​ Not all CS-CR pairings are the same ○​ If someone just had Indian food and gets sick, that person will associate Indian food and sickness quicker than someone who always eats Indian food ○​ Some associations are easier to learn than others ​ Taste aversion ​ When you come to associate a food with an unpleasant outcome ​ Can be built up after one trial ​ Can lead to the avoidance of that food for a long time ​ Biological preparedness ​ Practical application of conditioned taste aversion ○​ Preventing lions from preying on cattle (thereby preventing farmers from killing lions) ​ Paired beef with a deworming agent that made lions sick, this made them refuse to eat untreated beef ​ Rescorla-Wagner model: ○​ A cognitive model of classical conditioning which states that the strength of the CS-US association is determined by the extent to which the US is unexpected or surprising ​ This leads to greater effort by the learner to understand why the US appeared ​ E.g., if the dog always had food available, it would never build the association between the bell and food Operant Conditioning ​ Learners who are operating in their environment ​ The consequences of an action determine the likelihood that it will be performed in the future ​ Thorndike’s law of effect ○​ Developed the theory of operant conditioning  ○​ Any behaviour that leads to a “satisfying state of affairs” is more likely to occur again, and any behaviour that leads to an “annoying state of affairs” is less likely to occur ○​ Thorndike’s puzzle box ​ A cat is in a box with a lever, if the cat presses the lever, it can eat the treats outside ​ Reinforcer ○​ A stimulus that occurs after a response and increases the likelihood that the response will be repeated ​ Primary vs secondary reinforcers ​ Primary reinforcer ○​ Something that fulfills a biological need ​ E.g., food, shelter, sex, etc ​ Secondary reinforcer ○​ AKA conditioned reinforcers ○​ Something that has come to be known as a reward ​ E.g., money ○​ Positive Rienforcement ​ Increases the probability of a behaviour being repeated by the administration of a (positive, rewarding) stimulus ​ Giving a dog a treat ○​ Negative Reinforcement ​ Increases the probability of a behaviour being repeated by the removal or avoidance of a (negative, aversive) stimulus ​ Putting on your seatbelt to remove the noise ○​ Positive punishment ​ Decreases the probability of a behaviour being repeated by the administration of a (negative, punishing) stimulus ​ Spanking a child ○​ Negative punishment ​ Decreases the probability of a behaviour being repeated by the removal of a (positive, pleasurable) stimulus ​ Taking your kid’s phone Something is given (+) Something is taken away (-) The behaviour will likely be Positive reinforcement Negative Rienbforcent repeated Behaviour no longer be Positive punishment Negative punishment repeated ​ The Premack Principle ○​ AKA the Relativity theory of reinforcement ​ Or “grandma’s rule” ​ You have to eat all of your vegetables (lower probability) to eat your icecream (higher probability)  ○​ Is simply the idea that higher probability behaviours can be used to reinforce lower probabnility behaviours ​ Token economies ​ Applied behaviour analysis (ABA) Schedules of Reinforcement ​ Continuous vs. partial (intermittent) reinforcement ○​ Continuous behaviour leads to faster learning - more you are continuously reinforced, faster you learn the consequences (keep/stop doing something) ○​ Partial reinforcement is a type of behaviour that is reinforced intermittently ​ Types of Partial Reinforcement ○​ Fixed ​ Reinforcement is consistent and predictable ​ Not happening every time a behaviour occurs ​ E.g., every third time ○​ Your third fuel-up will be free ○​ Variable ​ Reinforcement is variable and unpredictable (occurs after a varying number of behaviours, or a varying amount of time ○​ Ratio ​ Based on a number of times the behaviour occurs ​ Number of behaviours ○​ Interval ​ Based on the passage of time ​ Time Predictable Unpredictable Passage of time FIxed-interval variable -interval E.g., The pool manager E.g., The pool manager checks to see if the lifeguard checks the pool to see if the is doing a good job every lifeguard is doing a good job Friday randomly at least once a week Predictable (fixed) based on Unpredictable (at least…) time based on time Behaviour Fixed-ratio Variable ratio The lifeguard gets a bonus The lifeguard gets a reward for evry 3 dummies he if they save at least 3 people saves every shift Unpredictable (variable) Predictable (fixed) based on based on number of number of behaviours behaviours (saving) (work) ​ Variable-Ratio ○​ Most effective ○​ E.g., slot machine  ○​ Unpredictable, but the prize is eventually won ○​ E.g., social media ​ Unpredictable, but a cool video might pop up ​ Fixed-ratio ○​ E.g., paycheck ○​ If you know you get paid biweekly, you might pick up more shifts near your payday ​ Variable-interval ○​ E.g., boss checking up on you ​ Unpredictable, makes you constantly be on guard ​ Fixed-interval ​ E.g., meetings ○​ If you have a meeting at a set date every month, you will not get your stuff ready until near the meeting ​ Shaping ○​ Involves reinforcing behaviours that are increasingly similar to the desired behaviour ​ Reinforcing successive approximations eventually produces the desired behaviour by teaching the animal to discriminate which behaviour is being reinforced ○​ ​ Operant conditioning: Later Developments ○​ Biological Constraints ​ Animals have a difficult time learning behaviours that are incompatible with innate, adaptive behaviours ​ Conditioning is most effective when the association between the behavioural response and the reinforcement is similar to the animal's built-in predisposition (instinctive drift) ​ It is easier to teach a pigeon to peck a button to get food than flapping its wings to get food ​ Pigeons naturally peck food, so this association is an easy connection for the pigeon ○​ “Pleasure Centers” ​ Intracranial self-stimulation (ICSS) in rodents → developed after an accidental discovery by Olds & Milner (1954) ​ When electrical stimulation is given to certain parts of the brain, the rodents are more complicit than in conditioning them ○​ Animals were willing to die and keep receiving this direct stimulus ​ Electrical stimulation > food, water, sec ​ Willing to walk across the painful electrified grid ​ Will press the lever until collapse from exhaustion ○​ “Reward Circuits” ​ What makes a reinforcer rewarding? Why does it lead to increased behaviour? ​ The experience of pleasure usually results from activation of dopamine receptors in the nucleus accumbens (mesolimbic dopamine pathway)  ○​ Latent Learning ​ Edward Olman argued that reinforcement had more impact on performance than acquisition/learning and was necessary ​ Rats could learn a path through a maze without reinforcement, but not reveal their learning until reinforced ​ The rats were still forming cognitive maps of their environment Observational Learning ​ Learning That occurs by watching others (e.g., imitation or modelling the behaviour of others) ​ Albert Bandura & Social Learning Theory ○​ The general view that learning is largely or wholly due to modelling, imitation and other social interactions ○​ Recall Vgotsky ​ We can learn in the absence of positive reinforcement ○​ Agreed with Behaviourist ideas of reinforcement and punishment but also emphasized the role of social and cognitive factors in learning ​ Attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation ​ The Bobo Doll Experiment MIdterm Review: ​ B.F. Skinner ○​ Wanted to look at behaviour that operated in its environment ○​ Father Operant conditioning ○​ The study of learning process ​ Keller and Marian Breland ○​ ABE ​ Animal behaviour enterprises ​ Trained animals for entertainment ​ Trained dogs, farm animals, dolphins, whales, etc ○​ Thought dolphins to jump through hoops to get fish ​ Karen Pryor ○​ Marine mammal trainer ○​ Popularised positive reinforcement training and the use of clickers for dogs ​ Positive reinforcement ○​ Adding something pleasant after behaviour occurs ○​ E.g., giving the dog a treat when they do something you want ​ Negative reinforcement ○​ Removing an announg stimulus ○​ Seat Belt noise ​ Positive punishment ○​ Adding negative stimulus to stop a behaviour ○​ Spanking ​ Negative punishment ○​ Removing positive stimulus to stop and action  ○​ Removing a child’s phone ​ Shaping ○​ The process of teaching a complete behaviour by rienforcing small versions of that behaviour ○​ E.g: ​ To lie down, a dog must first learn to sit then lie down ​ Brainstem ○​ Reticular for mation ​ Used for sleep cycles ○​ Keeps us breathing and our hearts beating ​ Cerebelum ○​ Means little brain ○​ In teh back of the brain ○​ Used for balance and coordination ​ Hypothalamus ○​ Tiny part in the middle of the brian ○​ Responsible for motivation and hoemeostasus ​ Working to regulate body temp ​ Responsible for drives that we have ​ Needing water ​ Needing food ​ Damage to the hypothalamus leads to disfunctions to our survival needs ​ Thalamus ○​ Our relay station for incoming senses (the first stop for sensory information other than smell) ○​ Information gts sent to primary sensors ​ Basal ganglia (nucleus accumbens) ○​ Memory ○​ Coordinated movement ​ Learning how much pressure is needed to pick up something ​ Dopamine receptors ​ Hippocampus ○​ Long term memory ​ Amygdala ○​ Emotional processing ○​ Connects our emotions to memories ​ Occipital lobe ○​ Vision ○​ Primary visual cortex ○​ Dorsal stream ​ ​ Temporal lobe ○​ Hearing ○​ Primary auditory cortex ​ Parietal lobe ○​ Feeling ○​ Primary somatosensory cortex ​ Frontal lobe ○​ Thinking ○​ Prefrontal cortex ​ Decision making ○​ Primary motor cortex ○​ Orbifrontal lobe ​ Neurons ○​ Dendrites ​ Receivers of information ○​ Axon ​ Neurons generate action potential ​ Electric response ○​ Myelin ​ Makes electrical signals faster ​ Formed by glia ​ Node or ranvier ​ Gaps between lyelin sheaths ○​ Terminal buttons ​ Send signals to toher neurons ​ Chemical signals ​ Synapse ​ Neurons firing ○​ Resting potential ​ More negatvice in teh cell than out ​ More sodium Na+ outside than Pottassium K+ inside ○​ Excitatotry signals ​ Increase the chance of firing ○​ Inhibitory signals ​ Decreas the chance of neurons firing ○​ Depolarization ​ Goes from -7- - -55 ​ Mkes the inside more positive ○​ Repolarization ​ Going back to -77 ○​ Hyperpolarization ​ Below resting potential charge ​ Visual transmission ○​ Rods and cones ○​ Bipolar, amacrine, horizontal cells ○​ Canglion cells/optic nerve ○​ THalamus (LGN) ○​ Primary visual cortex ○​ Dorsal “where” ​ Parietal lobe ○​ Ventral “what” ​ Temporal lobe ​ Split brain patients ○​ Left hemisphere (better with language)  ○​ Right hemisphere (better with spatial relationships) ○​ E.g., teddy bear on right visual field, duck on left visual field ​ The patients will see a bear but pair it with a tub ​ Assimilation ○​ When a new stimulus or information can be fitted into a schema without having to change our schema ​ Accomidation ○​ When an existing schema has to be changed to fit this new stimulus into a schema ​ Deequilibration ○​ Equilibration ​ An active self-regulatory process by which a child progresses through the stages of development ○​ Sensorimotor stage ​ (0-2) years ​ Acquiring information through the senses ​ Primary circular reactions ​ Involve their own bodys ○​ E.g., I have arms ​ Secondary circular reactions ​ Involve an external object ○​ 4-8 months of age ○​ Toys ​ Tertiary circular reactions ​ Little scientists ​ Trial and error ○​ Preoperational stage ​ (2-6) ​ Language development ​ Ecocentrism ​ Have a difficult time being in another persons shoes ​ Theory of Mind ○​ Other people have different views ​ Sally-Ann task ​ Conservation ​ Unable to tell the difference between 2 different looking bottles that hold the same amount of water ○​ Concrete operational stage ​ (6-12) Lecture 10: Memory Attention ​ The “spotlight” of attention ​ When our cognitive systems are focused on a stimuli ○​ Attention is:  ​ Limited ​ You can only focus on one stimuli at a time ​ Selective ​ We can choose what we focus on ​ Attention can be captured ○​ E.g., loud noise, strong smell, etc ​ It is also often the first step towards remembering something ​ “The Invisible gorilla”​ ○​ Chabris & Simons (1999) ​ There is no such thing as “multi tasking” ○​ Humans are unable to focus on two stimuli at once ​ Walking an talking is not multitasking ​ Walking does not need our concentration ○​ Humans can task switch ​ We can quickly switch our attention back and forth between multiple stimuli ​ We often fail to realize how distracted we are ○​ The effect of distraction is having on learning performance and outcomes ○​ E.g., students and the affects of: ​ Multitasking peers ​ Students multitasking with laptops in lecture ○​ Students who were not multitasking but were near the multitasking student received lower marks than students who were not near the multitasking student ​ Smartphone use during class ​ The mere presence of ones phone Models of Memory ​ THe information processing model: ○​ Encoding phase: ​ Information is acquired and processed into a neural code that the brain can use ○​ Storage phase ​ The retention of encoded information (whether it is for a moment or a lifetime) ○​ Retrieval phase ​ Recalling or remembering the stored information when we need it ​ Memory is NOT a recording, but a reconstruction ​ Multistore model of memory ○​ Sensory input → Sensory memory → short term memory → rehearsal → Long-term memory Sensory Memory ​ Memory for sensory nformation that only lasts fot an extremely brief time (