Viral Capsids and Cellular Metabolism - Scholarly Flashcards.csv

Front,Back What is the primary function of the viral capsid?,To protect the viral genome from environmental conditions and to deliver the genome to the interior of a homologous host cell. What are the various shapes that capsids can have?,Capsids can have various shapes including icosahedral helical...

Front,Back What is the primary function of the viral capsid?,To protect the viral genome from environmental conditions and to deliver the genome to the interior of a homologous host cell. What are the various shapes that capsids can have?,Capsids can have various shapes including icosahedral helical or complex. What role do capsids play in nano-biotechnology?,Capsids serve as models for studying protein dynamics and have applications in synthetic biology particularly in energy transfer during viral infections. What is the difference between a virus capsid and a capsomere?,A capsid is the complete protein shell of a virus that encloses its genetic material while a capsomere is one of the subunits that make up the capsid. What are microtubules?,Microtubules are a key component of the cell's cytoskeleton made of tubulin and are involved in various structural and functional roles within the cell. What are the processes of polymerization and depolymerization in relation to microtubules?,Polymerization refers to the assembly of tubulin dimers into microtubules while depolymerization is the disassembly of microtubules back into tubulin dimers. What are the main functions of microtubules in the cell?,Microtubules provide structural support facilitate intracellular transport assist in cell division and enable movement through cilia and flagella. How are microtubules related to energy in the cell?,Microtubules are associated with motor proteins that transport cellular materials thus performing work that requires energy and exhibit dynamic instability which facilitates cellular movements. What does the First Law of Thermodynamics state?,The First Law of Thermodynamics states that energy cannot be created or destroyed only transformed or transferred from one form to another. How does the dynamic instability of microtubules benefit cellular function?,Dynamic instability allows microtubules to quickly assemble and disassemble providing flexibility and control in cellular processes such as cell division and transport. What is the significance of motor proteins in relation to microtubules?,Motor proteins such as kinesin and dynein move along microtubules to transport vesicles and organelles within the cell utilizing ATP as energy. What role do microtubules play in cell division?,During cell division microtubules form the mitotic spindle which organizes and separates chromosomes into the daughter cells. What are cilia and flagella and how are they related to microtubules?,Cilia and flagella are hair-like structures on cells that facilitate movement constructed from microtubules organized in a specific pattern (the '9+2' arrangement). What does the Second Law of Thermodynamics state?,The Second Law of Thermodynamics states that in any energy transfer or transformation the total entropy (disorder) of a system and its surroundings will increase over time. Define potential energy and give an example.,Potential energy is stored energy. An example of potential energy is a boulder sitting atop a hill which has the potential to roll down. Define kinetic energy and give an example.,Kinetic energy is the energy of motion including heat. An example of kinetic energy is a moving car which has energy because of its motion. What is anabolism and why is it important in cellular biology?,Anabolism is one of the key metabolic pathways in cellular biology referring to the process that constructs macromolecules such as proteins nucleic acids lipids and carbohydrates. It requires energy and plays a central role in energy utilization within cells. What are the key macromolecules constructed during anabolism?,The key macromolecules constructed during anabolism include proteins nucleic acids lipids and carbohydrates. Explain the relationship between metabolism anabolism and energy utilization.,Metabolism encompasses all chemical reactions within an organism which includes anabolism and catabolism. Anabolism is specifically the subset of metabolic pathways that require energy to build larger molecules from smaller units playing a crucial role in energy utilization in cells. Give an example of an anabolic process.,An example of an anabolic process is the synthesis of proteins from amino acids where energy is used to form peptide bonds between amino acids. What is the significance of the increase of entropy as stated in the Second Law of Thermodynamics?,The increase of entropy signifies that energy transformations are not 100% efficient and that energy will increasingly disperse and become less available to do work over time. How does kinetic energy relate to heat?,Kinetic energy relates to heat as heat is the form of energy that is transferred between systems or objects with different temperatures (the energy of atoms and molecules in motion). What is the role of phosphorylating intermediates in biosynthetic reactions?,Phosphorylating intermediates provides reducing power which is essential for biosynthetic reactions such as fatty acid synthesis. Define anabolism and its importance in cellular processes.,Anabolism is the set of metabolic pathways that construct molecules from smaller units. It is crucial for building tissues expanding cell size replacing damaged molecules and organelles and synthesizing energy-rich molecules such as glycogen and triglycerides for later use. How do cells regulate anabolic pathways?,Cells regulate anabolic pathways to balance energy expenditure with energy availability through various mechanisms including the action of hormones like insulin which promotes anabolic processes such as glycogen and protein synthesis and feedback inhibition where end-products of anabolic pathways inhibit the enzymes involved in their synthesis. What is catabolism and its role in metabolism?,Catabolism refers to the breakdown of complex molecules into simpler ones as part of cellular metabolism. It plays a key role by releasing energy from complex macromolecules. Describe the nature of catabolic reactions and their energy implications.,Catabolic reactions are exergonic meaning they release energy when complex molecules such as carbohydrates lipids and proteins are broken down into simpler molecules like glucose. What are the types of molecules commonly involved in catabolic reactions?,Common molecules involved in catabolic reactions include carbohydrates lipids and proteins which are broken down to simpler molecules. Explain the significance of energy-rich molecules synthesized during anabolism.,Energy-rich molecules synthesized during anabolism such as glycogen and triglycerides serve as stored energy that can be accessed when energy is needed by the body. What role does insulin play in anabolic pathways?,Insulin promotes anabolic processes including glycogen and protein synthesis thereby facilitating the buildup of energy reserves and tissue repair. What is feedback inhibition in metabolic pathways?,Feedback inhibition is a regulatory mechanism whereby the end-products of anabolic pathways inhibit the activity of enzymes involved in their own synthesis helping to maintain homeostasis and prevent excessive accumulation. Why is the balance between anabolism and catabolism important in cellular metabolism?,The balance between anabolism and catabolism is crucial for cellular metabolism because it ensures that energy expenditure and energy synthesis are matched enabling cells to grow repair and maintain functions efficiently. What are fatty acids and amino acids?,Fatty acids are long hydrocarbon chains with a carboxylic acid group at one end; they are important components of lipids and energy storage molecules. Amino acids are organic molecules that serve as the building blocks of proteins containing an amino group a carboxyl group and a distinctive side chain (R group). What are energy carriers in cellular metabolism?,Energy carriers are molecules that store and transport energy within cells for metabolic processes. Common examples include ATP (adenosine triphosphate) NADH (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) and FADH2 (flavin adenine dinucleotide). What are the 20 types of catabolic pathways involved in cellular respiration?,The primary catabolic pathways include: 1) Glycolysis 2) Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle) 3) Oxidative Phosphorylation 4) Beta-Oxidation. Each pathway plays a distinct role in the breakdown of carbohydrates proteins and fats to produce ATP. What is glycolysis?,Glycolysis is the metabolic pathway that converts glucose into pyruvate producing a small yield of ATP and NADH in the process. It occurs in the cytoplasm and does not require oxygen. What is the Citric Acid Cycle also known as the Krebs Cycle?,The Citric Acid Cycle is a series of enzyme-catalyzed chemical reactions that take place in the mitochondria. It oxidizes Acetyl-CoA to produce NADH FADH2 GTP (which can be converted to ATP) and CO2 serving an important role in aerobic respiration. What is oxidative phosphorylation?,Oxidative phosphorylation is the final step of cellular respiration occurring in the inner mitochondrial membrane where electrons from NADH and FADH2 are transferred through the electron transport chain leading to ATP synthesis and forming water as a byproduct. What is beta-oxidation?,Beta-oxidation is the catabolic process by which fatty acid molecules are broken down in the mitochondria to generate Acetyl-CoA which then enters the Citric Acid Cycle resulting in ATP production. What role does catabolism play in energy production?,Catabolism is crucial for energy production as it breaks down complex molecules into simpler ones releasing energy that is captured in the form of ATP which is used for various cellular processes. How does catabolism maintain energy balance in cells?,Catabolism maintains energy balance by regulating the production and consumption of ATP based on cellular demand. It prioritizes the breakdown of stored molecules such as glycogen or fats to meet energy needs during scarcity. What is hormonal control in relation to catabolism?,Hormonal control involves hormones regulating catabolic activity; they can inhibit fat breakdown when energy is sufficient or promote catabolism during low-energy states stimulating processes like glycogenolysis (breakdown of glycogen) and lipolysis (breakdown of fats). What is feedback mechanism in metabolic pathways?,Feedback mechanisms are regulatory processes that help maintain homeostasis in metabolic pathways; they can stimulate or inhibit metabolic activities depending on the concentration of metabolites and energy availability. What is the difference between catabolism and anabolism?,Catabolism refers to the breakdown of complex molecules to release energy whereas anabolism is the process of building complex molecules from simpler ones which requires energy. What is the significance of catabolism for cellular activities?,Catabolism is the primary source of energy for cellular activities ensuring necessary energy is available for survival maintenance of cellular structures and function. Why do cells prioritize catabolism of stored molecules during scarcity?,Cells prioritize catabolism of stored molecules like glycogen or fats during scarcity to quickly mobilize energy reserves ensuring that essential cellular functions continue to operate even under low-energy conditions. What is metabolism?,Metabolism is the result of a series of chemical reactions that are catalyzed by enzymes. It involves the conversion of food into energy and the building of cellular structures. What role do enzymes play in metabolic pathways?,Enzymes are proteins that facilitate or catalyze each step in the chemical reactions of metabolic pathways. Without enzymes these reactions would not occur efficiently or at all. What is the ultimate energy source for most life?,The ultimate energy source for most life is the sun. What is photosynthesis?,Photosynthesis is the process by which organisms use sunlight as an energy source to build biological molecules. What are the key variables in the equation G = H - TS?,In the equation G = H - TS G represents the change in free energy (usable energy for cellular work) H represents the change in enthalpy (total energy including heat) T represents the temperature in Kelvin and S represents the change in entropy (disorder or randomness). What does the change in free energy (G) indicate about a reaction?,The change in free energy (G) indicates the amount of usable energy available for cellular work during a reaction. What does the change in enthalpy (H) represent?,The change in enthalpy (H) represents the total energy of a system including both usable energy and heat. What is the significance of temperature in the context of the equation G = H - TS?,Temperature (T) is significant in the equation as it affects the entropy (S) of a system. Higher temperatures can increase the randomness or disorder of molecules. What does change in entropy (S) refer to?,Change in entropy (S) refers to the degree of disorder or randomness in a system with higher values indicating greater disorder. Under what condition do reactions occur spontaneously according to the free energy equation?,Reactions occur spontaneously when the change in free energy (G) is negative. In the context of cellular thermodynamics why is the understanding of G = H - TS important?,Understanding the equation G = H - TS is important as it helps to explain the relationship between energy heat and disorder guiding predictions about whether a reaction will occur spontaneously or require external energy. What does 'H' represent in thermodynamics?,H represents enthalpy or total energy. It accounts for internal energy and the energy required to make room for a system at constant pressure. What does 'G' stand for in thermodynamics?,G stands for Gibbs free energy which indicates the amount of energy available to do work in a system at constant temperature and pressure. What does 'S' signify in thermodynamic equations?,S signifies entropy which is a measure of disorder or the amount of energy that is unavailable to do work in a thermodynamic system. What does 'T' represent in thermodynamics?,T represents temperature specifically absolute temperature measured in Kelvin. What is the typical value of temperature used in most thermodynamic calculations measured in Kelvin?,A common value for temperature in many calculations is around 310 K which corresponds to 37°C the normal human body temperature. What is the relationship between the breakdown of glucose and Gibbs free energy?,The breakdown of glucose releases energy resulting in a negative Gibbs free energy (G) which is utilized to form ATP. How does ATP hydrolysis drive biological processes?,ATP hydrolysis is a process that releases energy leading to a positive Gibbs free energy (G) for the building of molecules thus providing the necessary energy for biosynthetic reactions. What is the significance of a negative Gibbs free energy (G) in biological systems?,A negative Gibbs free energy means that a reaction can occur spontaneously leading to the release of free energy that can be harnessed for work such as in ATP synthesis. What does a positive Gibbs free energy (G) indicate for a reaction?,A positive Gibbs free energy indicates that the reaction is non-spontaneous under standard conditions and requires an input of energy to proceed which can be provided through ATP hydrolysis. How does entropy (S) relate to the concept of energy in a system?,Entropy (S) represents the degree of disorder in a system; higher entropy means more unusable energy contributing to the overall energy balance as it reflects the inefficiency of energy transformations. What is the second law of thermodynamics in the context of entropy?,The second law of thermodynamics states that in any energy transfer the total entropy of a closed system will always increase over time leading to a natural tendency toward disorder. In energy metabolism what happens during the hydrolysis of ATP?,During ATP hydrolysis energy is released from the breakdown of ATP into ADP and inorganic phosphate (Pi) which can be harnessed for cellular work. How does the concept of Gibbs free energy relate to thermodynamic equilibrium?,At thermodynamic equilibrium the Gibbs free energy of a system is minimized and no net change occurs; reactions are at a standstill with no driving force for change. What role does ATP play in cell metabolism?,ATP serves as the primary energy currency of the cell providing the necessary energy for various metabolic processes including biosynthesis muscle contraction and active transport. Explain the relationship between enthalpy (H) and the formation of biomolecules.,The formation of biomolecules usually requires an input of energy reflected in a positive change in enthalpy (H) which can be supplied by energy-releasing processes like ATP hydrolysis. What is the importance of understanding thermodynamics in cellular processes?,Understanding thermodynamics in cellular processes helps explain how cells convert energy drive metabolic pathways and maintain homeostasis by balancing energy consumption and production.