Victorias COMM 2P15 Final Exam Review PDF

Victorias COMM 2P15- FINAL EXAM REVIEW WEEK 1 1.1- Research and Arguments What is research? A set of perspectives and skills that are applied to questions of problems A form of argument Stephen Toulmin 1958 The uses of argument The Toulmin Model A claim may be… ○...

Victorias COMM 2P15- FINAL EXAM REVIEW WEEK 1 1.1- Research and Arguments What is research? A set of perspectives and skills that are applied to questions of problems A form of argument Stephen Toulmin 1958 The uses of argument The Toulmin Model A claim may be… ○ A position to be argued ○ An insight to be explored A claim may be expressed as a… ○ Thesis: statement defended with data and reasoning ○ Hypothesis: informed judgment tested with data and reasoning ○ Research question: The question answered with data and reasoning Data are… ○ Observations, physical evidence, or measurements Warrant ○ OED 1. Anything that authorizes a person or an action ○ CRM: a standard for evaluating the value of the data supporting a claim A warrant can be… ○ A generally accepted assumption ○ A shared belief ○ An appeal to authority ○ A law of nature ○ A principle of human behaviour ○ A carefully planned research method Prompts us to ask: ○ How do we know what we know ○ Why do we think what we know is true Every report or essay should have a clear claim, sufficient data, and a compelling warrant that links the data to the claim 1.2- Culture of Research Five principles of research Systematic: carefully consider and account for all possible variations Disciplined: respect the evidence discovered; do not fall back on assumptions Verifiable: any discovery should be replicable by other researchers under the same condition Cautious: do not claim that findings apply to anything beyond what was studied in the research Value-free: personal opinion of the researcher should not affect the outcome of the research What is empiricism? A philosophical position which privileges evidence derived from the five senses, or observations, over everything else What are empirical questions? Those questions which can be answered through measurement Argument against “value-free” research There is no truth We rely heavily on language, a human intervention made up of arbitrary symbols and sounds, to understand and describe the world Because our understanding relies on flawed symbols, our knowledge is imperfect, and we can’t claim to know absolute truths Bacon versus the language argument Major assumption underlying is that “truth” itself exists… or can be known by humanity ○ Agree? You believe objective knowledge is attainable ○ Disagree? You believe human knowledge is fallible, so only subjective knowledge is attainable Different basic formats for scholarly research publications Research report- summary of a research project ○ Typically has an objective standpoint ○ Claim phrased as a hypothesis or question  ○ Divided into clearly labelled sections addressing theory, research method, findings and analysis ○ Project should be replicable bby other scholars Critical essay- an argument supporting a claim ○ Typically has a subjective standpoint ○ Claim phrased as a thesis or questions ○ Presented as a single, continuous argument ○ Argument may or may not be replicable by other scholars (week 5) Peer-review- all researchers’ work is assessed by their “peers” or other researchers with expertise in the same field Means that the community of researchers is self-regulating and self-policing WEEK 2 2.1-Literature Review Basic research process Establish topic and claim ○ thesis , question, or hypothesis Review the literature ○ Assess previous research Select a research method ○ Identify sources Collect data using the method orgaanize and interpret the data ○ Gather and make sense of your data Conclude ○ Defend thesis, answer question, or decide if hypothesis was correct ○ Draw insights Starting points for new research An interesting topic and a curiosity for more information Claim Review existing research on the topic Researchers divide sources of information into two basic types Primary sources of information ○ provide data/evidence with direct relationships to object of study Participant Witness Document or atifact made by participant or witness Secondary sources of information ○ Provide data/evidence with mediated relationship to object of study  Family member or friend of a participant or witness Why conduct literature reviews? To know your topic thoroughly ○ What questions have been asked ○ What theories have been used to explain the topic ○ What research methods have been used to collect data ○ What information- primary or secondary is available? Acquire the most reliable, up-to-date information available Avoid duplication of other people’s work How to conduct literature reviews? 1. Identify the most recent, most prominent secondary sources on your topic 2. Read them (carefully, critically; assess their arguments) 3. Draw conclusions (are the secondary sources on your topic credible, compelling, and satisfying? WEEK 3 3.1- Research Perspectives Perspective A set of assumptions about knowledge that shapes how researchers look at problems ○ Can develop unconsciously ○ Should be recognized, seld-consciously, so researchers understand how their perspectives affect their work Objective research To evaluate data from a neutral perspective, without bias or preconceived notions The researcher excludes personal inclinations and observes the world as it supposedly appears to all people Subjective research To evaluate data while acknowledging one’s perspective, which may contain bias or preconceived notions The researcher denies objectivity is possible, and accepts that an absolute truth for all people may not exist Three distinct research perspectives Funtionalism ○ Assumptions Objective truth is knowable If something exists, it must have a purpose  Human nature is also stable,predictable, and knowable Communication and cultural practices are also stable, predictable, and knowable ○ Research goals Catalogue and predict behaviours Identify and diagnose problems Explore and clarify solutions ○ Persona managerial ; activist Interpretivism ○ Assumptions Reality may be stable and knowable, but human knowledge is fallible and thus subjective Human nature is not rational and predictable; we can only observe and interpet people in social contexts It is important to understand the meaning and significance attached to communication and cultural practices by the participants in social contexts ○ Research goals Observe and describe interactions Interpet significance of interactions for participants ○ Persona Academic; non-judgmental Critical perspective ○ Assumptions Reality may be stable and knowable, but human knowledge is fallible and thus subjective Human nature is not rational and predictable; we can only observe and interpret people in social contexts It is important to understand the meaning and significance attached to communication and cultural practices by the participants in social contexts It is important to assess the legitimacy of communication and cultural practices ○ Basic goals Observe and describe interactions Interpret significance of interactions Judge interactions ○ Persona Moralist; activist 3.2- History and Policy Terminology History- a record of what had happened in the past Policy-planned rules governing expectations for behaviour; generally administrative; can be public or private, formal or informal Archive- repository or collection of original documents Longitudinal- describing a trend that occurs over time Qualitative research- involves data which is textual/visual Quantitative research- required data which is numerical/statistical ○ There are not mutually exclusive Historical and Policy Analysis 1. Understand how/why something happened in the past Research generally requires primary sources Assumption: knowledge provides insight into processes/decisions 2. Provide context for current phenomena Assumptions ○ Knowing the past helps to understand the present and adopt ○ See current events as extensions of past events; not random 3. Understand change Assumption: knowing the past helps to prepare for the future, and predict possible outcomes 4. Understand the past for its own sake The past is a different country Presentist A bias toward the present day that affects the historical perspective WEEK 4 4.1- Sources and Repositories Unpublished sources Documents never published or with limited distribution Three categories: ○ Personal papers (individuals) ○ Corporate records (private organizations and companies) ○ Corporate records (government departments and agencies) Repository archives Maintain unpublished papers and related materials in original formats generally, each archive has a specific collection mandate Locating resources Review the literature  Check the Canadian Archival information database, national library Research design Justify your research decisions When conducting research, you must know… ○ How your sources are linked to the subject ○ Why your sources are the best available ○ How you will actually collect data from your sources ○ A good research design is the best warrant for your data or evidence 4.2- Checking and Organizing Data Data preparation and analysis Assess the reliability of your data ○ Be aware of potential problems in your data Two ways to do this: ○ Corroborate or data triangulation Find two or more sources with data on the same issue ○ Be skeptical Consider specific aspects of production Finding patterns and turning points ○ Consider all the data you have collected and look for… Patterns: recurring behaviours and events, or trends Turning points: moments of significant change; “signposts” ○ To find patterns, you must organize all the data you collected in a logical way Sort chronologically ○ Plot data on a time line (description) ○ Construct a narrative linking events (analysis) Be Comprehensive ○ Sort chronologically ○ Sort thematically WEEK 5 5.1- Case Studies For any case study: Analysis must be rooted in real-world data/evidence data/evidence must give a comprehensive view of the topic Your data/evidence can be qualitative or quantitative Your sources can come in any format Your claim an be historical or contemporary; and can be viewed with any perspective Parallels between case, historical, and policy analysis 1. Topic can be any person, group, artifact, trend, or culture 2. Research usually requires detailed qualitative evidence, but quantitative data is also welcome 3. Evidence is organized in two ways: a. Chronologically, as a narrative b. Thematically Why use case study? 1. Discovery and diagnosis: a preliminary step for new research a. What can a sample case reveal about a new topic? b. Can a sample case reveal how and why things happen? 2. Build theory: develop general idea based on one specific case a. Can one case provide insights that explain several other similar cases? 3. Test theory: develop or test concepts and explanations a. How well does a theory explain a real-world case? Case study/ analysis 1. Advantages a. Holistic or thorough understanding of a specific topic b. Relatively fast if the case is clearly defined 2. Disadvantages a. Values of insights are questionable is the case is not representative of all similar cases; selecting an appropriate case is extremely important 5.2- Content analysis stages 1-3 Definition A research technique for the objective, systematic, and quantitative description of the manifest content of communication Manifest- describing something clear and obvious Content of communication- the message Manifest content- any plainly recognizable message such as words, pictures, symbols, gestures… objective: without personal bias, or free of subjective opinions Systematic: guided by pre-arranged method, mechanical, though, not arbitrary The primary source for content analysis is always texts Content analysis: uses Close analysis of an individual author ○ Assumption- a pattern in a text (or set of texts) reveals something about the author  Explore latent meanings and intentions Latent content-meaning that is implied by a text, or is dormant in a text, but that is not manifest in the text Explore latent meanings and intentions Expose and document social and cultural trends WEEK 6 6.1- Content analysis sampling 1. Define the research problem Have a clear claim regarding your topic 2. Review the literature Have other researchers addressed your claim? If so, what did they do? And what did they find? 3. Select the appropriate research method Each method generates different kinds of data Fit your method to your thesis/question/hypothesis Your method must collect the data you require 4. Select appropriate medium Tests are produced in many media formats If your claim addresses a specific medium or format, that you need to collect texts from that medium Select the medium that provides the best texts for your research 5. Design a sampling strategy ideally, look at all available texts Use a fraction of all available texts (sample) Goals ○ Ensure your sample is representative of the entire population ○ Minimize potential error in your sample Random sample Every text has an equal chance of being selected Suitable if there are no significant differences in the entire population of texts Systematic sample Texts selected according to some regular pattern Select texts from throughout the population Five aspects Time frame for the entire population of data The frequency new content becomes available  Anomaly in the medium Define what is a relevant text Choose a method to select texts for your sample 6.2- Coding Define the unit of analysis An entity that frames what is being analyzed The unit can be an individual text The unit must have variables relevant to your analysis Each variable must be quantifiable Identifiers (variables that describe the text) Name of text Author Location and date Page numbers, time, placement? Analytical categories (variables relevant to your claim) Explain your analysis: perspective? theory? Coding The process of converting qualitative data into generic codes (numbers or symbols). Its how you take notes in content analysis Codes should facilitate counting, measurement, and statistical analysis Codebook A guide to the codes used in a research program; defines how each unit of analysis is interpreted and coded If each unit is clearly defined and easily coded, your data should be trustworthy WEEK 8 8.1- Content analysis, organizing data Data preparation and analysis A. Counting - Tally data collected on coding schedules - How frequently does each variable appear? - More variables mean more to count - frequency: number of times each item appears B. Pattern recognition and signposts - Patterns reveal trends in data - A trend implies there is logic to the data - We assume that the pattern is not random - Signposts mark individual moments in the data  - If there is a pattern in the data, you may be able to explain the data Numerical or quantitative data We use numbers to express many ideas Statistics Provide a way to contextualize numerical data Establish recognizable proportions or scales Allows us to make comparisons Qualifications Statistics are not self-evident facts ○ They are signposts or indicators ○ They are coded data that must be interpreted 8.2- Descriptive statistics Nominal Numbers assigned to categories to signify qualitative differences basically , the nominal figure simply tells us that two things are different Generated by assigning numbers arbitrarily to categories They have no bearing on any scale Any number could be replaced by any other number or symbol Ordinal Numbers assigned to categories based on subjective scale without fixed intervals basically , ordinal figures tell us two things are different, and one is greater in some way based on personal opinion Generated by assigning numbers to categories using subjective considerations Interval Numbers assigned to categories based on a fixed scale with equal intervals between points basically , internal figures tell us two things are different, and one is greater in some way, and the difference is measurable Generated by measurement against a fixed scale Scale may be subjective or objective, but its intervals are known and fixed Ratio Numbers assigned to categories based on a fixed scale with equal intervals between points and a true zero point These are the most powerful numbers  ○ Ratio figure tell two things are different, and one is greater in some way, and the difference is real and measurable Generated by counting or measuring using a fixed, objective scale with true zero point Descriptive statistics Data- numbers information gathered by measurement Set- all data related to a single category or variable Univariate analysis- description of a single data set Frequency-number of observations for each category or variable, often expressed symbolically as N or n Range complete array of observations in data set or distribution Median precise center of the range Man or average- the precise centre of weighted observations (values do matter) Standard deviation- an average difference of each observation from the mean Low deviation Suggests your data cluster closely around your mean The mean probably tells you something significant about the data set or distribution High deviation Suggests your data are widely dispersed through your data set or distribution The mean may not be significant; perhaps the full range of responses is more significant WEEK 9 9.1- Inferential statistics Bivariate analysis Description of two distributions in relation to one another Ordered pair Two observations describing different aspects of the same unit of analysis, expressed as x and y Coefficient of correlation Indicates the extend to which ordered pairs share variance It measures the relationship between two phenomena Coefficient is a number that describes the pattern of correlation found in a scatter plot The number can indicate if the pattern is…  ○ Positive (x and y move in the same direction) ○ Negative (opposite directions) Correlation Requires two data for each unit of analysis 9.2- Research ethics Research Often entails risks to participants and others Risks can be…trivial or profound, physical or psychological, individua or social Ensure that all research is conducted ethically to earn public confidence and trust Ethics- the branch of knowledge or study dealing with moral principles Simply put, ethics are our attempts to define “good” and “bad” “acceptable” and “unacceptable” Tri-council policy statement Respect for persons Concern for welfare Justice Balance risks and benefits through informed consent Respect the individual autonomy of all persons Inform recruit of purpose, procedures, risks Respect for human dignity all other guidelines follow from this principle REB assessing risk Harm any negative effect on the welfare of participants Risk magnitude of possible harm and probably it will occur Minimal risk probability and magnitude of possible harms are no greater than participants face in everyday life WEEK 10 10.1- Surveys uses and stages 1-5 Survey research Broad-based, qualitative, and/or quantitative research which collects data through pre-formulated questions in a structured questionnaire to a representative sample of individuals drawn from a defined population. ○ Main advantage: a large number of participants ○ Responses can be recorded verbatim or coded for statistical analysis Survey research: uses To research intangibles ○ intangibles : something that cannot be precisely masrueed or assessed ○ Beliefs, values, attitudes, articles of ftih, motives, tastes, desires, passions… To research behaviours or use of material objects ○ What do we need to know? How individuals connect (tangibles devices like cell phones/modems) Why individuals connect (intangibles reasons/motives/incentives) Organizational studies ○ Privides view of organization from the perspective of employees rather than management ○ Survey can ensure anonymity, and gather confidential responses from people concerned about speaking truthfully Survey research advantages 1. Contact period with each participant is bried 2. Can be conducted by assistants 3. Can fit method to participants and their convenience Survey research: disadvantages 1. Less data per participant a. reliability - data may be superficial, inconclusive versus interviews, focus 2. Static data or “snapshot” a. Lack of historical perspective on trends Ways to sample frame Acquire list of entire population, then recruit from list Recruit through common activity, medium, or location Two stage sampling ○ Create list from common activity, medium, or location ○ Recruit from list What do we want in a frame? Comprehensiveness ○ Representative of the entire population Efficiency ○ Reduce unnecessary participants to a minimum  Known probability of selection ○ Should know estimated size of entire population ○ Should know individual’s chance of selection 10.2- Surveys stage 5 Selection method The way you identify actual recruits ○ Understand the population to be studied ○ Have a sample frame that can provide representatives of that population a) Random sampling Entire sample frame has equal change of selection b) Selection method The way you identify actual recruits ○ Systematic sampling Know the size of entire sample frame, then identify recruits based on a fixed interval Ensure recruits are drawn from entire frame, and not any one cluster ○ Stratified sampling can improve representativenss Know relevant characteristics of entire frame then , create quotas for each relevant characteristic Quota: share that each group should contribute to total sample c) Sample size Considerations Nature of research question Number of analytical categories/strata Bottom line 1. Accurate samples start with accurate knowledge of the population 2. Strata should match your analytical categories 3. Avoid unnecessary categories; don’t waste time collecting irrelevant data Tokenism- making perfunctory or symbolic effort Two components of sample size: Confidence level: probability of error in the sample  Margin of error: each score may be wrong by addition/ subtraction, multiple or percentage Researchers generally accept a confidence level of 95%; that is, a sample correct 19 times out of 20 and each score may be out of +/-5% It is impossible to reach 100% confidence with any sample unless you survey the entire population d) setting and timing Location of response can affect data collected Timing of response can affect data collected ○ Considerations: Comfort of participants How the survey is conveyed Distractions WEEK 11 11.1- Surveys Questionnaires Questionnaire A pre-determined list of questions answered by each participant Brevity is important typically , identifier questions first Closed questions: list all possible answers Open questions: leave blank space for participant to answer in own words Identifier questions (tell you about the participant and can be used for analysis) Closed questions allow respondents to self-cofe their responses using standard concepts and terminology All possible answers must be listed after the question If you expect to get unpredictable reponses, you should have an option for other responses Likert scale Ordinal or interval scale Forces respondents to self-code/ standardize own reponses Especially useful for qualitative data Data coded quickly Once coded, data is ready for statistical analysis Why use open questions? They do not “lead” participants by suggesting predicted answers Collect qualitivate data  Provide answers in participants own words; get new or surprising insights ○ But… Time consuming to record and process Must interpret each answer individually Be cautious! Do not lead respondents toward specific reponses; this will undermine the integrity of the data Possible solutions ○ Arrange question in 2 or more ways; you may reduce or gauge effect of “order bias” ○ Ask same question at different points in survey to gauge respondent’s consistency Draft a questionnaire Pre-determined list of question answered by each participant ○ Brevity is important ○ Typically, identifier questions first, analytical second ○ Closed question- faster; allows coding as you go benefit is statistical analysis ○ Open questions- slower; coding is separate process benefit is more detailed responses ○ Write questions carefully: do not “lead” participants ○ Order questions carefully: do not lead participants 11.2- Interviews and Focus Groups Interviews and focus groups: definitions intensive , qualitative research methods which generate data through directed social interaction Interviews question an individual or group with expertise or experience regarding your subject Focus groups foster discussion among groups of people with expertise or experience regarding your subject Uses 1. Research intangibles intangibles = beliefs, values, attitudes, articles of faith, motives, desires, or passions 2. In-depth study of a particular individual or group 3. a) sample common practice/ popular opinion with interviews  b) sample common practice/ popular opinion with focus groups Major assumptions Selected individuals are representative of entire population Advantages Interviews and focus groups (primary data) Focus groups over interviews (cost/time- work with several participants) (reliability- group discussion may foster more comfortable environment for participants to share their thoughts) 2 b) focus groups over surveys/observation faster-fixed , brief time-span Cost-little time spent in the field; perhaps none Access- fewer volunteers; easier to recruit