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Subsystem Geosphere Solid portion of the earth includes: ○ Landforms ○ Landmassses ○ Plates ○ Rocks and Minerals ○ Layers Atmosphere Blanket of gases that covers the earth Interacts with earth’s surface and outer surface Composit...

Subsystem Geosphere Solid portion of the earth includes: ○ Landforms ○ Landmassses ○ Plates ○ Rocks and Minerals ○ Layers Atmosphere Blanket of gases that covers the earth Interacts with earth’s surface and outer surface Composition ○ Composed of Nitrogen 78% Oxigen 12% Others (Carbon dioxide, water vapor, ozone) ○ Layers (depending on temp) Troposphere Stratosphere mesosphere thermosphere ○ Troposphere First layer 75% of the earth’s atmosphere where weather happens top of the troposphere is tropopause temperature: 15^C- -57^C ○ Stratosphere Located above the tropopause 15-50 km from the Earth's surface contains the ozone layer To part is called stratopause Temperature: -57°C to -5°C  ○ Mesosphere Located above the stratopause around 50-80 km from the Earth's surface cold and thick burns meteors and other objects entering the Earth's atmosphere ○ Thermosphere Located above the mesopause around 80 km from the Earth's surface gases are arranged horizontally based on mass Temperature: 1,727°C Hydrosphere Liquid part of the earth comprises ¾ of the earth’s surface mainly composed of water ○ Composition of water composed of two hydrogen atoms and an oxygen atom odorless, colorless, and tasteless water molecules are linked together through hydrogen bond ○ Forms of water liquid water in the different bodies of water water vapor in clouds and fogs ice in glaciers and polar regions ○ Types of water 1. saltwater (97%) high salinity Found in oceans and seas 2. freshwater (3%) safe for human consumption  Found in polar regions (69%), and in aquifer, other bodies of freshwater (21%) Saltwater > Freshwater ○ Sources of water Groundwater - main source of freshwater Stored in aquifer - underground layer of freshwater clean and safe for consumption ○ Importance of hydrosphere Weather and climate conditions involve the hydrosphere Precipitation, snow, typhoons, and similar events involve water Allows many biogeochemical cycles Provides water which is essential to all organisms Has economic importance because of its industrial uses Serves as habitat and nourishment for many organisms Biosphere subsystem of the Earth where life exists where organisms live and interact with its environment or various components of other subsystems Totality of biodiversity ○ Level of Biological Organization Population - group of organisms of the same species Community - group of different populations Ecosystem - group of different communities interacting with the environment Biosphere - combination of all ecosystems Domain Archaea Unicellular  Prokaryotic Can live in extreme environments ○ Methanogens ○ Halophiles ○ Thermophiles Domain Bacteria Microscopic prokaryotic can live everywhere pathogenic, decomposers, or photosynthetic Domain Eukarya most diverse domain includes all eukaryotes four types: ○ protists ○ fungi ○ plants ○ animals ○ Biomes biological communities with distinct climate, geographical location, biodiversity and physical characteristics Two types: ○ terrestrial ○ aquatic Importance of Biosphere Unique characteristic of Earth essential in many biogeochemical cycles and natural processes affects other subsystems home to the human population International Astronomical Union (IAU) It is the association of all astronomers with educational and research background on astronomy IAU is in-charge of designation and classification of celestial bodies and their features. Space Agencies institutions that aim to promote the science of astronomy and to discover new celestial bodies and phenomena in the solar system and beyond Ex. National Space Agency of the United States, European Space Agency, and the Russian Federal Space Agency. Spacecraft A spacecraft is a vehicle or machine that travels outside the Earth into the outer space Space shuttles: ○ are spacecrafts that are used for manned missions ○ examples of space shuttles are ○ Discovery in 2011 and Challenger in 1986. Space probe: ○ a spacecraft that carries sophisticated instruments that can measure or document different features of the solar system ○ Examples of space probes are Viking 1 and 2 and Pioneer 11 Rockets: ○ are spacecrafts that are used to launch satellites ○ examples of rockets are the Apollo missions and Voyager in 1977 Space station:  ○ a spacecraft that serves as home for astronomers and other scientists as they study the solar system ○ example of which is the Skylab ○ Mars Exploration Mars has been the target of so many explorations and discovery projects. These aim to discover the geology and meteorology of Mars and its potential as future habitat. In the 1960s, the first exploration mission was sent to Mars. In 1971, the Mars 2 and Mars 3 exploration spacecraft made the first contact on Mars' surface. In 1971, Mariner 9, was the first space probe to orbit Mars. Since then, many new exploration missions have been launched. However, most of them were not successful. Recently, the ExoMars project is near completion. The project aims to find signs of life or records of previous organisms that have existed before. Another project, the Mars 2020 is on the way to be launched in 2020. The project was conceptualized last 2009. The project aims to get more information about Mars including signs of life forms, presence In 2004, the space rovers Spirit and Opportunity started to gather information about the surface of Mars. They were able to find out that water had existed there before. In 2013, MAVEN or Mars Atmosphere and Volatile Evolution Mission was launched and reached Mars in September 2014. It is currently studying the upper atmosphere of Mars. Pluto and Charon In 2007, New Horizons was launched to study the geography, atmosphere and other properties of Pluto and its satellite called Charon.  In 2015, New Horizons, the first space probe was able to fly over Pluto. Dwarf Planets debate on the nature of dwarf planets heightened after the discovery of Eris in 2008. Currently, there are five dwarf planets recognized by theInternational Astronomical Union. These are the Ceres, Pluto, Haumea, Makemake and Eris. Plutoid Coined by the IAU in 2006 Refers to any celestial body that revolves around the sun, round in shape, massive, and is located beyond Neptune. Ex: Dwarf planets Eris and Pluto SUMMARY There are important bodies in the field of astronomy, the International Astronomical Union and the space agencies. There are different types of spacecraft used to gather new information about the solar system. There are current advancements and information on the solar system such as the Mars exploration, the concept of dwarf planets and plutoids and the study of celestial bodies beyond Neptune. Layers of the Earth Crust outermost layer of the Earth solid (composed mainly of aluminum and silicate) relatively thin (1% of Earth's mass) floating surface of rocks and minerals where life thrives  either continental or oceanic Types of Crust Continental Crust ○ layer of rocks and minerals that comprises the continents and the continental shelves ○ 35-70 km thick Oceanic Crust ○ layer of rocks which makes up the sea floor ○ relatively younger and thinner than continental crust ○ 5-10 km thick Discontinuity Zone Mohorovicic Discontinuity ○ boundary between the crust and the mantle ○ named after Andrija Mohorovicic Mantle thickest and largest part of the Earth's interior composed of solid rocks and minerals (upper part) and semi-solid molten rocks (lower part) 2,900 km thick source of internal heat drive tectonic movements comprised mainly of ferro-magnesium silicates divided into two regions: the lithosphere and the asthenosphere ○ Lower Mantle ○ 1,420 mi thick ○ has convection currents, which are caused by temperature variations. ○ Upper Mantle ○ solid, nearly 390 mi thick ○ contributes to tectonic activity ○ Made up of: lithosphere. asthenosphere  ○ Regions of Mantle ○ Lithosphere comprising the crust and the uppermost part of the solid mantle where geological and tectonic processes and movements happen ○ Asthenosphere located in the upper mantle just below the lithosphere important in plate tectonics ductile carries lithosphere Core innermost layer two sub-layers: liquid outer core and solid inner core 2,500 km deep 15% of the Earth's volume Outer Core ○ liquid layer composed mostly of iron and nickel with small amounts of oxygen and silicon ○ 2, 200 km thick ○ responsible for the magnetic field Discontinuity Zone Gutenberg Discontinuity ○ boundary between the mantle and the core ○ around 2900 km deep ○ named after Beno Gutenberg who discovered it Inner Core ○ solid layer composed mostly of heavy metals like iron and nickel ○ 1, 250 km thick SUMMARY The Earth has several layers and regions: the crust, the mantle, the core ,and the lithosphere and asthenosphere. These layers may be differentiated based on their depth, thickness, volume, temperature, density, and composition Minerals: Building blocks of Rocks Mineral Versus Rocks ROCK A rock is a naturally occurring solid that is made up of minerals. Naturally occurring Solid Made up of minerals Composition and Structure of Minerals How do minerals form? INORGANIC CRYSTALLIZATION Process of organizing atoms to form crystalline solids RECRYSTALLIZATION From solids, liquids and gases associated with various rock-forming environments Properties of minerals LUSTER The behavour of light as it is reflected by the surface of the mineral. 1. METALLIC 2. NON METALLIC Non-Metallic Luster Appearance Virteous Glass Resinous Like Resins Pearly Pearly-like  Greasy Looks like it is covered in a thin layer of oil. Silky Soft looking with long fibers Adamantine Sparkly, hard, and brilliant luster Earthy Dull or clay-like Waxy As if it were coated with a layer wax SPECIFIC GRAVITY Is the density of mineral compared to the density of water Other Properties of Minerals TENACITY the characteristic that describes how the particles of a mineral hold together or resist separation. Diaphaneity The ability of a thin slice of mineral to transmit light ○ Transparent- allows most light to pass through undistorted ○ Translucent- light passes through but is bent and you cannot resolve images ○ Opaque- no light passes through even the thinnest slice ODOR Most minerals have no odor unless they are acted upon in one of the following ways: moistened, heated, breathed upon, or rubbed. TASTE Only soluble minerals have a taste, but it is very important that minerals not be placed in the mouth or on the tongue. Mineral Groups The Seven Mineral Groups Silicates Native Elements Sulfides Oxides Carbonates Phosphates Halides SILICATES Silicates are rock-forming minerals. Examples: olivine, pyroxene, amphibole, biotite mica, muscovite mica, plagioclase feldspar, orthoclase feldspar, and quartz.